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3d-12m txt t23 stb-pnt: +construction tips
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3D-14M TXT t31 G-STOR IN TANZA -insect mold
3D-13M TXT t24 Oklahoma grain elevators insect
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1C-3M TXT t5 mold fungus behaviour
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airwelsm.txt - - - - v5-16-06 verses z1 z2 z3 etc for dew5-06 study
z1 Air Wells Methods for Recovery of Atmospheric Humidity
[See also: Wolf Klaphake: Practical Methods for Condensation of Water from the Atmosphere ~ Recovery of Atmospheric Water (Patents)
Introduction, Mechanical Methods, Electromagnetic Methods, Chemical Methods, Orgone & Scalar Methods, Air Wells, Dew Ponds, Fog Fences, References
- - - content: use search-find on these words to jump chapters.
jump words: airwelsm, content, main, mechcan, chem, air-wel, dew-pon, fog-fen, reference (with links!), patents, end-note
- - - main: z1 Introduction Humans must drink about a gallon of water every day to remain alive. Modern urbanites easily consume 100 gal/day by bathing, laundering, and watering lawns, etc. If groundwater or rain is not available, there are several little-known alternative methods to obtain fresh water by condensing atmosphere humidity. We live in a dilute ocean of aerial moisture. There are also real "sky rivers" full of fresh water from which we can draw.
z2 -In 1993, Reginald E. Newell (M.I.T.), et al., found 10 huge filamentary structures that are the preferable pathways of water vapor movement in the troposphere (the lower 10-20 km of the atmosphere) with flow rates of about 165 million kilograms of water per second. These "atmospheric rivers" are bands from 200 to 480 miles wide and up to 4,800 miles long, between 1-2 kilometers above the earth. They transport about 70% of the fresh water from the equator to the midlatitudes, are of great importance in determining the location and amount of winter rainfall on coastlines. (Ref 1)
z3 -According to Newell, "A typical flow in [the] South American tropospheric river is very close to that in the Amazon (about 165 x 106 kg sec-1). There are typically five rivers leading into the middle latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere and four or five leading into the Northern Hemisphere. The rivers persist for 10 days or more while being translated generally eastward at speeds of 6 m/sec-1." (Figure 1)
Figure 1 ~ Tropospheric Rivers:
( "Tropospheric Rivers" appear as bright white bands )
z4-Approximately 3,100 cubic miles of water is in the atmosphere at any said time, 98% in the form of vapor, 2% in clouds. About 280 cubic miles of water evaporate or transpire into the atmosphere each day. A cubic mile of water contains over one trillion gallons. The continental USA receives about 4 cubic miles of rainfall daily. More than 2,000,000 cubic miles of fresh water is stored in underground aquifers; about 60,000 cubic miles of fresh water are stored in lakes, inland seas, and rivers. About 7,000,000 cubic miles of water are contained in glaciers and polar icecaps, and in Greenland. The world?s reserves of fresh water are estimated at approximately 35 million cubic kilometers, including glaciers, ground water, wells, rivers, lakes, and precipitation as rain and snow. Yet it is inadequate for the ever-increasing, largely unrestrained demands of human civilization, so that alternative sources are desperately needed. While desalination of seawater is an obvious option, as yet the total quantity produced in this way amounts to about 10 km3, which is only a very small percentage of the 3000 cubic km3 consumed annually.
- - -Mechanical Methods ~
z5 -It should be possible to draw water from atmospheric rivers. The engineering problem of reaching that height is not insurmountable if the construction is done atop mountains in appropriate areas, although the rivers move about considerably.
z6 -In 1935, the French meteorologist Bernard Dubos proposed the construction of 2,000 ft chimneys to create a humid draft from fountains at the base, ejecting it into the upper air to increase the saturation and produce rain (Figure 2). Towers like these also could draw water directly from the air at high altitudes by incorporating other inventions, such as Oscar Blomgren's Electrostatic Cooling (USP # 3,872,917) or the Hilsch-Ranque Vortex Tube (USP # 1,952,281).
z7 -Figure 2 ~ Dubos' Rain-Tower:
-( Everyday Science & Mechanics, October 1935, p. 845 )
-The recent invention of acoustic refrigeration probably could be applied for this purpose. Sound does in fact produce rain at certain lakes in China's southern Yunnan province. People there simply yell for rain. The louder they rain, the more it rains, and the longer they yell, the longer it rains! This effect is possible because the air there is so saturated that sound waves can cause water molecules to condense.
z8 -Melvin Prueitt's US Patent # 5,483,798 for a "Convection Tower" claims to be "capable of cleaning the pollution from large quantities of air, of generating electricity, and of producing fresh water utilize the evaporation of water spayed into the towers to create strong air flows and to remove pollution from the air. Turbines in tunnels at the base generate electricity, and condensers produce fresh water" (See also Prueitt's US Patents # 5,477,684 ~ # 5,395,598 ~ 5,284,628). (Figure 3)
Figure 3 ~ Preuitt's USP # 5,483,789:
z9 -Similarly, the "Vortex Engine" invented by Louis Marc Michaud (WO 03/ 025395 ~ US Patent Application # 2004112055) describes "A tornado-like convective vortex... produced by admitting air tangentially in the base of a cylindrical wall. The vortex is started by heating the air within the circular wall with fuel. The heat required to maintain the vortex once established can be the naturally occurring heat content of the ambient air, or can be provided in a peripheral heart echanger means located outside the circular wall. The heat source for the peripheral exchanger can be waste industrial heat or warm seawater. The preferred heat exhanger means is a crossflow wet cooling tower. The mechanical energy is produced in a plurality of peripheral turbines. A vortex engine would have a diameter of 400 meters; the vortex could be 100 meters diameter at its base and extend to a height of 1 to 15 kilometers; the power putput copuld be in the 100 to 500 megawatt range. The vortex process could also be used to produce precipitation, to cool the invironment, or to clean or elevate polluted surface air." (Figure 4)
z10 Figure 4 ~ Michaud's Vortex Engine:
Prof. Stephen Salter (Edinburgh University, Division of Engineering) has designed a 200 ft high turbine that will spray vaporized seawater into the atmosphere and produce rain from clouds that do not contain enough moisture to precipitate. The British government has provided a grant for its construction. Prof. Salter described his invention at the 10th Congress of International Maritime Association of the Mediterranean (Crete, May 2002):
z11 "The evaporation of water from the sea surface is slow and inefficient because of the need for large amounts of latent heat and because the perpendicular component of turbulence in the air vanishes at the surface leaving a stagnant humid layer. The wind has to blow over thousands of kilometres of warm sea before it can bring rain. Saudi Arabia is dry because the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf are narrow. Chile is dry because the Humboldt current is cold.
z12 "Calculations show that some remediation may be possible using a mechanism that can be controlled to suit local needs. This paper describes the design of a floating, vertical-axis wind turbine which pumps sea water through the humid stagnant layer and sprays it in fine droplets with a large increase in surface area. z12 The spray release height is chosen to give time for a large fraction of the water to evaporate when mixed with air in the turbine wake. z13 The distance from land is chosen so that residual very salty drops fall into the sea. The humidified air is likely to produce rain when it reaches rising ground. The technique allows evaporation from narrow stretches of sea with winds blowing over the fetches associated with daily sea breezes caused by rising air ashore. z14 Narrow waters can be made to behave like much wider oceans with seasonal prevailing winds but control remains in the hands of the turbine owners." (Figure 5)
z13 Figure 5 ~ Prof. Stephen Salter's Spray Turbine:
Vortex ring generators have been invented that project stable doughnut- shaped clouds of smoke for long distances. For example, in 1942 Dr Phillips Thomas of the Westinghouse company developed a vortex gun that was intended to eliminate smoke from factories by shooting it in vortex rings high into the atmosphere. US Patent # 3,940,060 was granted to Herman Viets in 1976 for a vortex generator that could penetrate clouds and atmospheric obstacles such as thermal inversions. When used in combination with acoustics, electric charges and water vapor or chemicals, this invention could be adapted to produce rain. (Figure 6)
Figure 6 ~ Viets' USP # 3,940,060:
z14 -The "Hail Stop" system invented by Gerald Ollivier has received four US Patents (# 3,848,801 ~ # 5,381,955 ~ # 5,411,209 ~ # 5,445,321), and it is commercially available (www.hailstop.com). The invention is "a process and apparatus for the transformation of the internal structure of visible cloud banks to induce rainfall or snow, or to avoid hailstorms, comprising igniting explosive compositions [acetylene] at time intervals of less than 25 seconds to create sudden upward movement of energy directed to form shock waves at cloud level to modify the internal structure of the cloud banks". (Figure 7)
Figure 7 ~ Ollivier's "Hail Stop":
z15 Electromagnetic Methods ~The great inventor Nikola Tesla published an article about "The Wonder World to be Created by Electricity" in Manufacturer's Record (September 9, 1915), wherein he claimed that, "The time is very near when we shall have the precipitation of the moisture of the atmosphere under complete control, and then it will be possible to draw unlimited quantities of water from the oceans, develop any desired amount of energy, and completely transform the globe by irrigation and intensive farming. A greater achievement of man through the medium of electricity can hardly be imagined". Tesla invented the "Magnifying Transmitter" with which to accomplish this feat, but he was not able to complete the project. (Figure 8)
Figure 8 ~ Tesla Magnifying Transmitter:
z16 It is in fact possible to influence tropospheric rivers by electromagnetic means. The US military certainly has been investigating weather modification since the 1950s. Capt. Howard Orville publicly stated in 1958 that the intent was "to manipulate the charges of the earth and sky and so affect the weather through electronic beams to ionize and de-ionize the atmosphere". That is being done today by the notorious American HAPPP station at Gakona, Alaska, and smaller stations in Greenland and Norway. HAARP currently transmit up to 960 KW of energy into the upper atmosphere to produce its effects. Increased funding through DARPA will enable the Gakona station to increase its power to 3.6 MW by 2006. (Figure 9) (http://server5550.itd.nrl.navy.mil/ projects/haarp/index.html)
z17 Figure 9 ~ HAARP:HAARP (High-Frequency Active Auroral Research Program) is a damnable weapon of mass destruction (invented by Bernard Eastlund: USP # 4,686,605 ~ # 5,38,664 ) that contravenes the United Nations "Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques" (approved in December 1976). The treaty prohibits "the use of techniques that would have widespread, long-lasting or severe effects through deliberate manipulation of natural processes and cause such phenomena as earthquakes, tidal waves, and changes in climate and weather patterns". z20 The US government openly advertises its intentions in the publication "Weather as a Force Multiplier: Owning the Weather in 2025" by Col. T. House, et al. (August 1996) . The report acknowledges that, "The difficulty, cost and risk of developing a weather control system for military applications [is] extremely high". It justifies the effort, however, with the rationale (according to Dr Arnold Barnes, who consulted in the study) that the "opportunities to capitalize on investment militarily [are] medium/ high" and the "political implications/health hazards medium/low". (www.au.af.mil.au/2025/volume3/ chap15/v3c15-1.htm )
z18 -Such military programs also violate the National Environmental Protection Act (42 U.S.C. Sec. 4331a), the policy of which is to "create and maintain conditions under which man and nature can exist in productive harmony."
z19 -During the Cold War the Soviet Union developed Nikola Tesla's "Magnifying Transmitter" technology to a high degree and weaponized it. Tesla had discovered that atmospheric ionization could be altered by low frequency radio waves (10-80 Hz). The Soviets built Tesla transmitters at Angarsk and Khabarovsk (Siberia), Riga (Latvia), Gomel, Sakhalin Island, Nikolayev (Ukraine). The transmitter at Riga was moved to Bejucal, about 60 miles south of Havana, Cuba. The coordinated operation of these transmitters apparently caused the long drought in California during the 1980s by creating a high pressure ridge about 800 miles off the coast of California and forcing it to remain there for several months. Another such "blocking pattern" that was held in position for 6 weeks caused severe flooding in the Midwest USA in 1993. z20 Some investigators have claimed that the flooding was caused by an experiment involving the GWEN (Ground Wave Emergency Network) transmitters, which comprise an emergency commnication system that would be immune to electromagnetic pulse in the event of a nuclear war.
z21-Since 1992, the Russian company Elate Intelligence Technologies, Inc. has demonstrated its ability to radio-control rainfall on demand over an area of 200 square miles. The corporate slogan is "Weather made to order". An Elate weather-control system is in operation at Moscow's Bykovo Airport. The New York Times (Sept. 24, 1992) reported that some Russian farmers were using the technology to improve their crops. Elate executive Igor Pirogoff was quoted in the Wall Street Journal (Oct. 2, 1992) as saying that his company could have transformed Hurricane Andrew "into a wimpy little squall".
z22-On November 13, 1997, the Wall Street Journal also reported "Malaysia to Battle Smog with Cyclones" using "new Russian technology to create cyclones... to cause torrential rains washing the smoke out of the air". The Malaysian government approved the plan in conjunction with the Malaysian company BioCure Snd. Bhd. and "a government-owned Russian party".
z23 -The method of atmospheric ionization to modify weather was first patented by William Haight in 1925 (British Patent # 251,689). He actually constructed two electrical rain-making towers in California. Haight claimed that the earth contains a positive charge of static electricity and the atmosphere has a negatively-charged region. Between the two is an insulating region of dry air that prevents the positive and the negative charges from combining to produce a lower temperature that would cause clouds to condense and rain to fall. By discharging high frequency alternating current into the insulating layer, electrical contact is established between the positive and negative layers. The temperature drops in the clouds, causing them to condnese and rain.
z24 -The technique can be adapted to produce clouds where none exist, or to disperse fog by forming clouds. The insulated apparatus was not grounded, so as to discharge only into the atmosphere. He used a 5 kilowatt generator to produce a 150-200 KHz signal (1200-2000 meters) that could control the weather within a radius of 5 miles. (Figures 10 & 11)
Figure 10 ~ Haight's Rain-Making Tower:
Figure 11 ~ Haight's British Patent # 251,689:
z25 -In September 2002, Russia's Emergency Situations Ministry announced that it had drawn rainclouds to Moscow and produced rain with a large ionizer. The device was described by Mikhail Shakhramanian, the director of the ministry's research institute, as "a metal cage crisscrossed by tungsten wire [that] emits a vertical flow of oxygen ions that stirs the air and raises humidity".
z26 -Orgone & Scalar Methods ~Dr Wilhelm Reich's Orgone technology is arguably effective for purposes of rainmaking, but conventional scientists categorically deny this possibility without bothering to gain the experience of etheric engineering. Trevor Constable, who has conducted research and development of this technology for more than 30 years, now consults with the Singapore corporation Etheric Rain Engineering Pte. Ltd , which has commercialized the process. The company's website proclaims that "No chemicals, electric power or electromagnetic radiation in any form are utilized. These natural techniques are environmentally pure". (Figures 12-14) (http://www.ethericrainengineering.info/ start.html )
Figures 12 - 14 ~Orgone Engineering Devices:Figure 12 ~ Trevor Constable & Aerial "Bull":Figure 13 ~ "Spider" Orgone Engineering Device:Figure 14 ~ Reich "Cloudbuster":
z27 -A version of the controversial Newman Motor (Figure 15) has been found by David Wells to produce profound effects on weather by apparently scalar means, both locally and at great distances . This writer has confirmed those claims with satisfactory personal experimentation using both the Newman-Wells machine and Reich's "Cloudbuster", but these technologies cannot be recommended because they are easy to abuse, which would inevitably happen. (www.rexresearch.com/wells/wells.htm ).Figure 15 ~ Newman-Wells Weather Motor:
- - - chem: z28 Chemical Methods ~ The technologies of weather modification with chemicals such as sodium chloride, urea, ammonium nitrate, iodates, etc., are well established, but they are expensive, unreliable, and pollute the air and water. The Dyn-O-Mat corporation (Riviera Beach, FL) manufactures "Dyn- O-Gel", which absorbs 2000 times it weight in water. It is marketed as "environmental absorbant products" under brand names such as "Dyn-O- Drought" and "Dyn-O-Storm", which are sold as as a weather-modifiers. The company's patent application states that, "The polymer is dispersed into the cloud an the wind of the storm agitates the mixture causing the polymer to absorb the rain. this reaction forms a gelatinous substance which precipitates to the surface below, thus diminishing the cloud's ability to rain". ( www.dynomat.com )
z29 -Dyn-O-Mat used a US Air Force C- 130 jet to disperse several tons of Dyn- O-Gel into a thunderstorm on July 16, 2001. A company spokesman claimed that Dyn-O-Gel is biodegradable and non-hazardous, and "burns up or dissolves when it hits salts water". On July 19, however, ABC News reported that a gelatinous "goo" was washing ashore at West Palm Beach. The substance was identified as Dyn-O-Gel.
z30 -The most successful method of producing rain by cloud-seeding was developed by Graeme Mather after 30 years of research. His breakthrough occurred with the observation that smoke from a local paper mill caused storm clouds to rain harder and longer. Mather's US Patent # 5,357,865 describes a method of hygroscopic particle seeding with a pyrotechnic flare containing a mixture of potassium chlorate and perchlorate. The formula consistently produces 40-65% more rain than unseeded storm clouds. His South African company Cloud Quest markets the technology. (http://www.soft.co.za/ science/CloudQuest/default.htm )
z31 -In June 2003, Thailand's King Bhumibol Adulyadej received a patent for his "super-sandwich" technique for rain- making, involving aircraft to chemically "seed" warm and cold clouds at different altitudes to make rain. The king's technique can precisely target areas where the rain is intended to fall.
z32 -The pseudo-secret international program to spread "chemtrails" is the most glaring example of desparate government crimes against nature and humanity. Contrails (the vapor trails from jets) form at low temperatures (-76Ý F) at high altitudes with 70% humidity or more. Chemtrails are toxic formulas containing alumina and titanium oxide and polymer fibers. They are spread in grid patterns at lower altitudes with the intent to reflect sunlight and alleviate the greenhouse effect, or to control weather. Often they include barium stearate, which serves to enhance HAARP and military radar transmissions. (www.chemtrail.com ~ www.carnicom.com ~ www.chemtrailcentral.com )
z33 -The British Royal Air Force conducted a rainmaking exercise called Operation Columbus in 1952. A BBC report broadcast in August 2001 revealed that the project caused 35 deaths by drowning in Devon.
z34 -In 1967 during the Vietnam War, the 54th Weather Reconnaisance Squadron engaged in Operation Popeye to cause flooding along Viet Cong supply lines. The operation was exposed by columnist Jack Anderson in 1971, and a subsequent Congressional investigation documented many more weather modification programs.
z35 -Fortunately, however, It is not necessary to abuse the sensitive atmosphere with large-scale high technologies that are difficult or impossible to control. There are several safe, simple and small passive methods to condense potable aerial water vapor: air wells, dew ponds, and fog fences in various preferred embodiments and combinations.
- - - air-wel: z36 Air Wells ~The collection of atmospheric humidity is an ancient technology that has been rediscovered in modern times. In 1900, while he was engaged in clearing forests in Crimea (Ukraine), Russian engineer Friedrich Zibold discovered 13 large conical tumuli of stones, each about 10,000 feet square and 30-40 feet tall, on hilltops , near the site of the ancient Byzantine city of Feodosiya. Because there were numerous remains of 3-inch diameter terracotta pipes about the piles, leading to wells and fountins in the city, Zibold concluded (albeit allegedly incorrectly, according to Beysens, et al.) that the stacks of stone were condensers that supplied Feodosiya with water. Zibold calculated that each "air well" produced more than 500 gallons daily, up to 1000 gallons under optimal conditions.
z37 To verify his hypothesis, he first wrote a book entitled "Underground Dew and New Theory on the Ground Origins of Spring Water" (1906), and then constructed a stone-pile condenser at an altitude of 288 meters on Mt. Tepe-Oba near Feodosiya. Zibold?s condenser was surrounded by a 1-meter wall, 20 meters wide, around a bowl-shaped collection area with drainage. He used sea stones (10-40 cm diameter) piled 6 meters high in a truncated cone that was 8 meters diameter across the top. It began to operate in 1912 with a maximum daily production of 360 liters. The base developed leaks which forced the experiment to end in 1915. The site was partially dismantled and then abandoned. Beysens, et al., rediscovered the site in 1993 and cleaned it up. z38 Zibold?s condenser has the distinction of actually working on a large scale, due to a fortuitous combination of circumstances. The shape of the stone pile allowed sufficient radiative cooling with only minimal thermal contact between the stones. Thus the ratio of condensation mass to surface area was sufficient to enable dew to condense within the pile. (Figures 16, 17)
Figure 16 ~ Model Reconstruction of Zibold's Air Well:Photo: D. Vincon)
Figure 17 ~ Zibold's Air Well Today:
( Photos: International Organization For Dew Utilization )
z39 -Depending on the temperature and partial pressure (p), air contains varying amounts of water vapor. When the partial pressure at a given temperature exceeds a certain level of saturation (saturation pressure, ps), then condensation occurs. The term Relative Humidity (RH) is the ration of the partial pressure and saturation pressure: HR = p/ps. The saturation pressure and the carrying capacity of air increases with the air temperature and pressure.
z40 -When a suitable substrate is available and its temperature is below the dew point, dew can form and be collected. The substrate can be cooled to various degrees by radiation or conduction to the ground or atmosphere, best during the night. The process of cooling by radiation is of course inhibited during daylight hours. The process of condensation releases latent heat which must be dissipated.
z41 -With suchc principles in mind, the Belgian inventor Achille Knapen built an air well on a 600-foot high hill at Trans- en-Provence in France. The construction of his "Puits Aerien" took him 18 months to complete (July 1930-December 1931). It still stands today, albeit in dilapidated condition. The unique structure was described in Popular Mechanics Magazine, thus:
-"The tower... is about 45 feet tall. The walls are from 8 to 10 feet thick to prevent the heat radiation from the ground from influencing the inside temperature. It is estimated that the aerial well will yield 7,500 gallons of water per 900 square feet of condensation surface." (Figures 18-22)(Ref. 2)Figure 18 ~ Knapen's Air Well:
Figure 19 ~ Knapen's USP # 1,816,592:Figure 20 ~ Knapen's Air Well, Improved:Figure 21 ~ Knapen's Wall-Attached Air Well:Figure 22 ~ Knapen's "Puit Aerien" Today:
[ Photo: International Organization For Dew Utilization ]
z42 -An article in Popular Science Magazine (March 1933) also featured Knapen's air well and included these details of its construction:
"[The air well has] a mushroom-like inner core of concrete, pierced with numerous ducts for the circulation of air; and a central pipe with its uppe"[The air well has] a mushroom-like inner core of concrete, pierced with numerous ducts for the circulation of air; and a central pipe with its upper opening above the top of the outer dome.
z43 "At night, cold air pours down the central pipe and circulates through the core... By morning the whole inner mass is so thoroughly chilled that it will maintain its reduced temperature for a good part of the day. The well is now ready to function.
z44 "Warm, moist outdoor air enters the central chamber, as the daytime temperature rises, through the upper ducts in the outer wall. It immediately strikes the chilled core, which is studded with rows of slates to increase the cooling surface. The air, chilled by the contact, gives up its moisture upon the slates. As it cools, it gets heavier and descends, finally leaving the chamber by way of the lower ducts. Meanwhile the moisture trickles from the slates and falls into a collecting basin at the bottom of the well." (Refs. 3, 4)
The structure did not perform well, however; at best, it collected about 5 gallons per night.
z45 -Knapen was inspired by the work of bioclimatologist Leon Chaptal, director of the French Agricultural Physics and Bioclimatology Station at Montpellier, who built a small air well near Montpellier in 1929 after being inspired in turn by the work of Zibold. The pyramidal concrete structure was 3 meters square and 2.5 meter in height, with rings of small vent holes at the top and bottom. Its volume (8 m3) was filled with pieces of limestone (5-10 cm) that condensed the atmospheric vapor and collected it in a reservoir. The yield ranged from 1-2.5 liters/day from March to September. In 1930, the structure collected about 100 liters from April to September, but only half that much in 1931, when conditions were less favorable. The maximum yield was 5.5 lb/day. Accordingly, a pyramid with 2,500 cubic meters volume would furnish about 600 liters/day.
z46 -Chaptal found that the condensing surface must be rough, and the surface tension sufficiently low that the condensed water can drip. The incoming air must be moist and damp. The low interior temperature is established by reradiation at night and by the lower temperature of the soil. Air flow was controlled by plugging or opening the vent holes as necessary. (Ref. 5)(Figure 23)Figure 23 ~ Chaptal's Air Well:
z47 The German-Australian researcher Wolf Klaphake tested several forms of airwells in Yugoslavia and on Vis Island (Croatia) in the Adriatic Sea during the 1920s and 30s. Klaphake began to study air wells after he read the works of Maimonides, a Spaniard who wrote in the Arabic language about 1,000 years ago. In his description of Palestine, Maimonides mentions the use of water condensers there. Klaphake summarized his own experiments as follows:
z48 "A better method consisted in selecting a mountain slope, smoothing it with cementitious or other material apt to make the surface watertight, and covering it with an insulating material, so that the cover formed over the area a canopy or roof which was supported by pillars or ridges. The sides of the canopy were closed, whereas the upper and lower ends were left open by constructing holes or vents to allow the air to pass under the roof. This construction proved to be very successful, as the cooling surface of the inner part was highly effective. The disadvantage was that the structure was very expensive, and so a return was made to the block house type.
z49 "Many types of building were tried, but that finally adopted was a sugarloaf- shaped building, about 50 ft high, with walls at least 6 ft thick, with holes on the top and at the bottom, the inner surface being enlarged by a network of walls of a material with great surface. The outer wall is made of concrete to be able to take up a great amount of thermal units, the inner surface consists of sandstone or any other porous material. z15 The building produces water during the day and cools itself during the night; when the sun rises, the warm air is drawn through the upper holes into the building by the out-flowing cooler air, becomes cooled on the cold surface, deposits its water, which then oozes down and is collected somewhere underneath. It is wrong to think that this process works only on days with dew, as the inner surface becomes much cooler than one should expect. In Dalmatia, that day was a rare exception which failed to produce water.
z50 "The essential principle in obtaining water from the air has thus been shown to be - -- a great water condensing surface which must be well protected against the heat of the sun and at the same time it is necessary that the air should pass to the condensing surface slowly, in order that it may cool properly and so deposit its water. The conclusion of this is --- that a big heap of stones would do the same thing as the above-described buildings." (Ref. 6)
z51 Oleg Bernikov received Russian Patent # 2,190,448 for an "Independent Complex for Separating Moisture from Air", for use near seas. The construction contains two levels of pebbles separated by a water-permeable floor. Wet air is pumped from the surface through intake pipes into low-pressure cavities in the pebble beds created by sun-heated suction pipes. Moisture settles on the pebbles and drains into a reservoir. Bernikov states that "Because the floor is constantly wet, it reduces the temperature of the lower level of pebbles to and below the dew point, which results in intensive backflow of moisture into the water collector." (Figure 24)
Figure 24 ~ Bernikov's Russian Patent # 2,190,448:
z52 -Two main forms of dew condensers have been developed. The first is characterized as massive (such as the designs by Klaphake and Zibold), which maintain a fairly constant temperature by producing very high specific heat. Modern research conducted by the non- profit International Organization For Dew Utilization (OPUR), however, shows that the best materials for the collection of atmospheric humidity should be light weight, thermally insulated radiative condensers that radiate heat quickly. Such materials were not widely available until recently.
z53 -Nikolayev, et al., have shown that for massive dew collectors, which "produce very high specific heat to maintain their temperature as constant as possible despite latent condensation heat levels" (2500 Joules per gram at 20Ý C), and "taking into account the different exchanges between the found and the atmosphere... the yield decreases dramatically when the mass to surface ratio increases". (Ref. 7)
z54 -Natural radiative cooling is limited to between 25 and 150 W/m2 at night. After compensating for latent condensation heat, the ideal maximum yield could not be over 1 liter per sq. m. One acre could produce several hundred gallons each night. Thus, according to D. Beysens, et al., the ideal dew collector would be a "radiative aerial condenser" such as developed by M. Nilsson, who has tested a polyethylene film containing micro-particles of titanium oxide that produces 100 ml/day on 1.44 sq. m. (Ref. 8-12)
z55 -OPUR has developed a commercial model (CRSQ-250) that is available in a portable kit which includes a foldable condenser, operating manual, a computer program for data recording, and 30-days technical assistance. Beysens, et al., have constructed an experimental radiative aerial foil dew collector (10 x 3 m at a 30Ý angle) at the Vignola laboratory of the University of Corsica. The collector faces west to allow dew recovery during the early morning, at which time atmospheric temperature is closest to the dew point. The system collected 0.1-0.4 liters/m2. from July-December 2000.(Figure 25)Figure 25 ~ FogQuest Dew Collector (Vignola, Corsica):
z56 -In the 1960s, Israelis irrigated plants dew condensers constructed of polyethylene. A similar method was developed in the 1980s using specially prepared foil condensers to irrigate saplings. (Refs. 13, 14)
z57 -In the Sahara Desert there exist many miles of ancient underground passages called "foggaras" that have been dug into the sides of mountains. The tunnels connect with the surface through an air vent every 75 feet or so, serving to collect humidity and seepage. Similar excavations exist in Afghanistan, and have served to hide the movement of troops from observation by Soviets and Americans.
z58 -In 1982, Calice Courneya patented an underground air well (USP # 4,351,651) employs the same principle of using the ground as a heat sink:
-"The air well is buried about 9 feet deep. The entrance pipe is 3-inch diameter PVC pipe (10 ft long), terminating just near the ground... This is an advantage because the greatest humidity in the atmosphere is near the surface." (Figures 26 & 27)(Ref. 15)Figure 26 ~ Courneya's Air Well ( USP # 4,351,651 ):Figure 27 ~ Courneya's Air Well:
z59 -In a preferred embodiment, the intake is provided with a cyclone separator to precipitate dust before the air enters the pipe. In addition, a flow restrictor device can be installed before the exit.
-Air flows through the pipes at 2,000 cubic feet per hour at 45o F with a 5 mph wind. This translates to about 48,000 ft3/day (over 3,000 lb of air daily). Courneya?s first air well used a turbine fan to pull air through the pipes. Later designs employed an electric fan for greater airflow. At 90oF and 80% Relative Humidity (RH), the air well yields about 60 lb water daily. At 20% RH, the yield is only about 3 lb/day. The yield is even lower at lower temperatures. The water collected by the Courneya air well is relatively pure, equivalent to single-distilled water. Analysis of water collected by an air well near a busy street found no sulfur or lead (measured in ppm). The yield depends on the amount of air and its relative and specific humidity, and the soil temperature, thermal conductivity, and moisture.
z60 -Acoustic resonance within the pipes might enhance condensation. The more recent invention of acoustic refrigeration could be used to advantage, as well as the Hilsch-Ranque vortex tube. Oscar Blomgren's invention of Electrostatic Cooling (USP # 3,224,492 and # 3,872,917) also is recommended for its simplicity and high efficiency. Passive solar-heated water-ammonia intermittent absorption refrigeration also could augment the yield of water in a desert environment.
z61 -Courneya's design is similar to Walter Rogers' earlier USP # 4,234,037, issued for an "Underground Heating and Cooling System", which includes a water trap. (Figure 28)Figure 28 ~ Walters' USP # 4,234,037:
z62-In the 1950s, the French inventor Henri Coanda designed an elegant method to desalinate water in Morocco (USP #2,803,591). He built a silo with reflective walls, mounted several inches over a tidal pool, angled so as to catch and multiply the sunlight, thus superheating the air in the chimney. The rising hot air drew in cold air from the bottom, and became super-saturated with moisture by the time it reached the top. Pure water flowed from the condensers there. The residual brine also is of great value to chemical industry and in the construction of solar ponds. The French government forced Coanda to cease operations because his device threatened their monopoly on salt production. (Figure 29)Figure 29 ~ Coanda's USP # 2,803,591:
z63 -Coanda also received USP # 2,761,292 for his "Device for Obtaining Drinkable Water" from the saturated air of sea coasts. He recommended that the condenser be buried so the earth could absorb the heat through a double radiator:
-"For example, one cubic meter of air from a wind whose temperature is about 40o C can contain up to about 50 grams of water vapor; if the wind is forced to enter a certain space by passing along... a radiator in which a fluid circulates at the temperature existing 7 or 8 meters below the round level, that is of about 11o C, this wind will immediately precipitate on the radiator walls the portion of the water content which is in excess of that permitted by its saturation point at the cooler temperature, that is, about 40 grams per cubic meter of air, as the saturation point of air at 11o C is 10 grams per cubic meter. The heat given off, which must be carried away by the fluid in the radiator, represents approximately 32 calories for said one cubic meter of air... It is advisable to pass the fluid through a second radiator of larger dimension disposed in the ground at a certain depth.
z64 -"If the humidity of the warm air is definitely below 50 grams of water per cubic meter, that is, if the air is far from its saturation limit, and if the device for obtaining fresh water is disposed near the sea, it is possible to use [windmills] for spraying sea water into the warm air in fine droplets, thereby increasing the amount of water contained in the warm air through the partial evaporation of the sea water thereinto." (Figures 30 & 31)Figure 30 ~ Water in Air:Figure 31 ~ Coanda's Air Well:
z65 -Seawater also can be used as a coolant; deep-sea water (at 4.5Ý C from 500 meters) can be pumped to cool a heat exchanger which is humidified with seawater and exposed to air currents. Such a system is installed at the Ukraine Maritime Hydrophysics Institute. It requires, however, several KW/m2/day to operate. Wave-power pumps could be implemented to eliminate the associated fuel costs. (Refs. 16, 17)
z66 -There are several patents extant for glorified air conditioners that dehumidify the air to produce potable water, but they all require electrical power. Soviet cosmonauts aboard space station Mir used a system that recovered water from the air. The Aqua-Cycle, invented by William Madison, has been marketed since 1992. It resembles a drinking fountain and functions as such, but it is not connected to any plumbing. It contains a refrigerated dehumidifier and a triple-purification system (carbon, deionization, and UV light) that produces water as pure as triple-distilled. Under optimal operating conditions (80o/60% humidity) the unit can produce up to 5 gallons daily (US Patents # 6,644,060 ~ # 6,490,879). The devices are sold by Vapair Technologies, Inc (Sandy, UT) for about $2500. (www.vapair.com ; 1- 866-233-0296)Figure 32 ~ "Vap-Air" Humidity Condenser:US Patents # 6,182,453 and # 6,490,879 were granted for such a design. Francis Forsberg's European Patent # EP 1,142,835 describes a similar system. Several other patents have been granted for various forms of dehumidifiers, employing for example the the thermoelectric Peltier Effect: USP # 2,779,172, # 2,919,553, # 2,944,404, # 3,740,959, # 4,315,599, # 4,506,510, etc. (Figures 33 - 36)Figure 33 ~ USP #2,799,172:Figure 34 ~ USP # 3,740,959:Figure 35 ~ USP # 4,315,599Figure 36 ~ USP # 4,506,510
z67 -Another promising method to collect atmospheric humidity makes use of hygroscopic dessicants such as silica gel or zeolite. The dessicant is regenerated by heating and the water vapor is condensed. The considerable energy requirements for such systems can be ameliorated by solar-heated intermittent absorption or zeolite refrigeration systems such as have been developed in recent years. Several patents have been granted for various embodiments of this technique (www.rexresearch.com/ airwell2/airwell2.htm and .../interefr/ patents.htm ): US Patent # 2,138,689 ~ # 2,462,952 ~ # 3,400,515 ~ # 4,146,372 ~ # 4,219,341 ~ # 4,242,112 ~ # 4,285,702 ~ # 4,304,577 ~ # 4,342,569 ~ # 4,345,917 ~ # 5,846,296, etc. (Figures 37, 38)Figure 37 ~ US Patent # 3,400,515:Figure 38 ~ US Patent # 5,846,296:
- - - dew-pon: z68 Dew Ponds ~The water collectors known as "dew ponds" were invented in prehistoric times, but the technology is nearly forgotten today. A few functional dew ponds can still be found on the highest ridges of England's bleak Sussex Downs and on the Marlborough and Wiltshire Hills, and connected to castle walls. They always contain some water that apparently condenses from the air during the night. Gilbert White described a dew pond at Selbourne (south of London), only 3 feet deep and 30 feet in diameter, that contained some 15,000 gallons of water which supplied 300 sheep and cattle every day without fail.
z69 -Investigations by UNEP (1982) and by Pacey and Cullis (1986) determined that the ponds do not catch significant amounts of dew, but actually were filled mainly by rainfall. Pacey and Cullis may, however, have confused dew precipitation with rainfall --- two different processes. The ponds may also collect fog. (Ref 18)
z70 -Edward A. Martin proved that dew ponds are not filled by precipitated dew because the water usually is warmer than the air, so no dew could be deposited. He concluded that mist condenses on the water already in the pond, or else the grass collects dew which gravitates to the bottom and forms a pond. Both mechanisms probably are active.
z71 -The ancient question, "Does dew rises from the soil by evaporation or precipitates by condensation from the air?" first was posed by Aristotle. John Aitken proved in 1885 that dew rises or falls as conditions allow. He also determined the favorable conditions for the formation of dew: (1) a radiating surface, (2) still air, and (3) moist, warm earth. The ability of materials to capture dew depends on their specific heats. The best material is swan's down, followed by flax or cotton, silk, paper, straw, wool, earth, charcoal, silica sand, and powdered chalk.
z72 -Arthur J. Hubbard described a dew pond in his book Neolithic Dew-Ponds and Cattleways (1907):
-"There is [in England] at least one wandering gang of men... who will construct for the modern farmer a pond which, in any suitable situation in a sufficiently dry soil, will always contains water. The water is not derived from springs or rainfall, and is speedily lost if even the smallest rivulet is allowed to flow into the pond.
z73 -"The gang of dew-pond makers commence operations by hollowing out the earth for a space far in excess of the apparent requirements of the proposed pond. They then thickly cover the whole of the hollow with a coating of dry straw. The straw in turn is covered by a layer of well-chosen, finely puddled clay, and the upper surface of the clay is then closely strewn with stones. Care has to be taken that the margin of the straw is effectively protected by clay. The pond will eventually become filled with water, the more rapidly the larger it is, even though no rain may fall. z74 If such a structure is situated on the summit of a down, during the warmth of a summer day the earth will have stored a considerable amount of heat, while the pond, protected from this heat by the non-conductivity of the straw, is at the same time chilled by the process of evaporation from the puddled clay. The consequence is that during the night the warm air is condensed on the surface of the cold clay. z75 As the condensation during the night is in excess of the evaporation during the day, the pond becomes, night by night, gradually filled. Theoretically, we may observe that during the day, the air being comparatively charged with moisture, evaporation is necessarily less than the precipitation during the night. In practice it is found that the pond will constantly yield a supply of the purest water.
z76-"The dew pond will cease to attract the dew if the layer of straw should get wet, as it then becomes of the same temperature as the surrounding earth, and ceases to be a non-conductor of heat. This practically always occurs if a spring is allowed to flow into the pond, or if the layer of clay (technically called the 'crust') is pierced."
-Additional construction details were explained in Scientific American (May 1934):
z77 -"An essential feature of the dew-pond is its impervious bottom, enabling it to retain all the water it gathers, except what is lost by evaporation, drunk by cattle, or withdrawn by man. The mode of construction varies in some details. The bottom commonly consists of a layer of puddled chalk or clay, over which is strewn a layer of rubble to prevent perforation by the hoofs of animals. A layer of straw is often added, above or below the chalk or clay. The ponds may measure from 30 to 70 feet across, and the depth does not exceed three or four feet.? (Figures 39 & 40)(Ref. 19)Figure 39 ~ Dew Pond:Figure 40 ~ Dew Pond (Oxteddle Bottom, Sussex):( Photo: Chris Drury )
z78-Edward A. Martin also described their construction in his book Dew Ponds (London, 1917). In particular, he notes that in order to ram the clay and puddle the surface, horses are driven round and through the pond for several hours. The base of the pond is planted with grass; without grass, the pond dries up. Trees and brush are planted around the pond to provide shade.
z79 -The simplest form of dew pond is used in Cornwall, where areas of about 40 square feet are prepared on mountain slopes by coating the ground with clay and surrounding it with a small wall. The clay is covered with a thick layer of straw that collects dew during the night. Straw is said to be more effective than grass for the purpose. Since the straw is moist both day and night, it rots quickly and must be replaced frequently.(Ref. 20)
z80 -In his book, The Naturalist on the Thames, published circa 1900, C. J. Cornish gave a description of British dew ponds, excerpted here:
-?The dew ponds, so called because they are believed to be fed by dew and vapours, and not by rain, have kept their water, while the deeper ponds in the valleys have often failed. The shepherds on the downs are careful observers of these ponds, because if they run dry they have to take their sheep to a distance or draw water for them from very deep wells. They maintain that there are on the downs some dew ponds which have never been known to run dry. Others which do run dry do so because the bottom is injured by driving sheep into them and so perforating the bed when the water is shallow, and not from the failure of the invisible means of supply. There seem to be two sources whence these ponds draw water, the dew and the fogs...
z81-?The fogs will draw up the hollows towards the ponds, and hang densely round them. Fog and dew may or may not come together; but generally there is a heavy dew deposit on the grass when a fog lies on the hills. After such fogs, though rain may not have fallen for a month, and there is no water channel or spring near the dew pond, the water in it rises prodigiously...
z82-?The shepherds say that it is always well to have one or two trees hanging over the pond, for that these distil the water from the fog. This is certainly the case. The drops may be heard raining on to the surface in heavy mists.?
z83-Cornish quoted Gilbert White?s Journal of May, 1775:??[I]t appears that the small and even the considerable ponds in the vales are now dried up, but the small ponds on the very tops of the hills are but little affected?. Can this difference be accounted for by evaporation alone, which is certainly more prevalent in the bottoms? Or, rather, have not these elevated pools some unnoticed recruits, which in the night time counterbalance the waste of the day? " These unnoticed recruits, though it is now certain that they come in the form of those swimming vapours from which little moisture seems to fall, are enlisted by means still not certainly known. The common explanation was that the cool surface of the water condensed the dew, just as the surface of a glass of iced water condenses moisture. The ponds are always made artificially in the first instance, and puddled with clay and chalk.
z84-?Mr. Clement Reid? notes his own experiences of the best sites for dew ponds. They should, he thinks, be sheltered on the south-west by an overhanging tree. In those he is acquainted with the tree is often only a stunted, ivy-covered thorn or oak, or a bush of holly, or else the southern bank is high enough to give shadow. ?When one of these ponds is examined in the middle of a hot summer's day?, he adds, ?it would appear that the few inches of water in it could only last a week. But in early morning, or towards evening, or whenever a sea-mist drifts in, there is a continuous drip from the smooth leaves of the overhanging tree. There appears also to be a considerable amount of condensation on the surface of the water itself, though the roads may be quite dry and dusty. In fact, whenever there is dew on the grass the pond is receiving moisture?.
z85-?Though this is evidently the case, no one has explained how it comes about that the pond surface receives so very much more moisture than the grass. The heaviest dew or fog would not deposit an inch, or even two inches, of water over an area of grass equal to that of the pond. None of the current theories of dew deposits quite explain this very interesting question. Two lines of inquiry seem to be suggested, which might be pursued side by side. These are the quantities distilled or condensed on the ponds, and the means by which it is done; and secondly, the kind of tree which, in Gilbert White's phrase, forms the best "alembic" for distilling water from fog at all times of the year. It seems certain that the tree is an important piece of machinery in aid of such ponds, though many remain well supplied without one.?
z86-Another form of dew pond was invented by S.B. Russell in the 1920s. According to the description in Popular Science (September 1922), "A dew reservoir 30 feet square will collect 24,000 gallons of water in a year, or an average of 120 gallons daily during the hot summer months and 50 gallons daily for the remainder of the year...
"The Russell reservoir consists of a concrete cistern about 5 feet deep, with sloping concrete roof, above which is a protective fence of corrugated iron which aids in collecting and condensing vapor on the roof and prevents evaporation by the wind. The floor of the cistern is flush with the ground, while sloping banks of earth around the sides lead up to the roof.
"Moisture draining into the reservoir from the low side of the roof maintains the roof at a lower temperature than the atmosphere, thus assuring continuous condensation.
"At one side of the reservoir is a concrete basin set in the ground. By means of a ball valve, this basin is automatically kept full of water drawn from the reservoir." (Figure 41)(Ref 21)Figure 41 ~ Russell's Dew Pond:
- - - fog-fen: z87 Fog Fences ~The Roman author Pliny the Elder mentioned the Holy Fountain Tree, growing on the island of El Hierro in the Canary Islands. For thousands of years (until about 100 years ago), the people there obtained most of their water from the trees, the leaves of which captured fog.
z88 -In 1945, South Africa's chief meteorologist, Theodore Schumann, proposed the construction of a unique cloud-condenser on top of Table Mountain on the south side of Capetown. Schumann designed two large parallel wire screens, one insulated and one grounded, charged with a potential difference of 50-100 KV. The wire screens were to be about 150-ft. high, 9,000 ft. long, and 1 foot apart. He estimated that the electrified fence would condense as much as 30,000,000 gallons daily from "The Cloth", a perpetual cloud that crowns the 3,000 ft peak. The fence was never built. (Figure 42)Figure 42 ~ Schumann's Fog Fence:
z89 -Alvin Marks invented the "Power Fence" (USP # 4,206,396) to generate electricity from the wind by means of a charged aerosol which was dispersed from microscopic holes in the tubing of the fence. Marks calculated that if the wind averaged 25 mph, a mile of fence would generate about 40 megawatts. The towers would be 500 feet high, strung with a grid of steel bars in a rectangular array, subdivided into a lattice of 4-inch squAlvin Marks invented the "Power Fence" (USP # 4,206,396) to generate electricity from the wind by means of a charged aerosol which was dispersed from microscopic holes in the tubing of the fence. Marks calculated that if the wind averaged 25 mph, a mile of fence would generate about 40 megawatts. The towers would be 500 feet high, strung with a grid of steel bars in a rectangular array, subdivided into a lattice of 4-inch squares. The squares are divided by a mesh of perforated tubules through which the water flows. Marks? patent also claims that the system can be used to modify weather and to clear fog in the same manner that Schumann proposed.. (Figure 43 & 44) (Ref. 22)Figure 43 ~ Mark's Power Fence:Figure 44 ~ Mark's Power Fence:
z90 -The EGD Fog Dispersal System invented by Meredith Gourdine (USP # 4,671,807) has been used at Los Angeles and Ontario International Airports and by the Air Force since 1986. The system sprays an electrified mist into the fog over the runways, thus clearing them for landing. A similar system was invented by Hendricus Loos (USP 4,475,927). (Figure 45) (Ref 23)Figure 45 ~ Loos' USP # 4,475,927:
z91 -Alekseevich, et al., used high voltage direct current to perform mist-clearing; thus, "electric force lines are directed upward in the air... producing charged particles based on corona discharge... The charged particles absorb water in the air, condensing and binding into water, and dispersing the fog", according to USP # 6,152,378.
z92-The "Fog Water Collector" patented by Roland Pilie and Eugene Mack (USP # 3,889,532) "consists of a slotted seainless steel rotatable tube. The tube is rotated and fog droplets are collected by impaction on the tube. Centrifugal force causes the water toflow outward towards the ends of the tube where it is collected..." (Figure 46)Figure 46 ~ Pilie/Mack's USP # 3,889,532:
z93-"The "Fog Water Collecting System" invented by Yoshio Usui (USP # 5,275,643) resembles a windmill with flexible rods that capture fog droplets which accumulate, condense and drain off. (Figure 47)Figure 47 ~ Usui's USP # 5,275,643:
z94-Kuntz' US patent for a "Rain-Making System" (USP # 5,626,290) uses dangling filaments as condensation collectors (Figure 48). This design works only when no clouds block the heat radiation of the earth. The US Geological Survey uses a similar design as a standard fog collector to make surveys of potential fog-collection sites.Figure 48 ~ Kuntz's "Rain-Making System (US Patent # 5,626,290):
z95-Since the late 1980s there has been considerable research and development of fog collectors around the world, pioneered by Dr Robert Schemenauer and Prof. Pilar Cereceda (Univ. of Chile). The Canadian organization FogQuest ( www.fogquest.org ) is the international leader in this admirable effort; Dr Schemenauer now serves as a research scientist with the organization. (Refs. 24-26)
z96 -Fog contains from 0.05 gram of water per cubic meter, up to 3 grams. The droplets are 1 to 40 microns in diameter. Fog has a very low settling rate, and it is carried by the wind wherever it may go. Fog collectors therefore require a vertical screen surface positioned at right angles to the prevailing wind. The collector must be a mesh because wind will flow around a solid wall and take the fog with it. A fog collector captures about half of the water passing through it. The efficiency of fog collectors depends on the size of fog droplets, wind speed, and the size of mesh (about 1 mm is optimal), which should fill up to 70% of the area. Two layers of ultraviolet- protected mesh, erected so as to rub together, cause the minute droplets to join and drain into PVC pipes attached to the bottom of the nets. The lifetime of the mesh is about 10 years. It costs about 25 cents or more per square meter.
z97 -The ideal location for fog collecters are arid or semi-arid coastal regions with cold offshore currents and a mountain range within 15 miles of the coast, rising 1,500 to 3,000 feet above sea level. Collection varies with the topography and the density of the fog. Ocean or lowland fog usually lacks sufficient water or wind speed to yield a substantial amount of water, so careful evaluation studies must be made to determine the suitability of any particular microclimate. This is done by monitoring a number of 1 m2 collectors for a period of months.
z98-Fog fences have the advantages of being passive, requiring no artificial energy input for operation. They are simple to design and can be constructed quickly and easily with little skill. The system is modular, easy to maintain, and can be expanded as demand increases or money allows. Investment costs are low --- much less than conventional sources in the areas where this technology can be applied. The water quality usually is good, though some treatment may be necessary for human consumption.
Mesh fog collectors are limited by the local conditions of climate and topography. The yield is affected by season and weather, included macro- systems such as El Nino and La Nina. Dust can cause high levels of metals and low pH. High humidity can promote the growth of microflora, and other sources of contamination (i.e., insects and birds) must be considered. Unless the collectors are close to the consumers, the system requires uneconomical pipelines that also present hydraulic problems. The site must be easily accessable and have clear ownership. Site security also may be an issue. Management of the water distribution must be fair, efficient, and self-sufficient. (Ref 27)
z99 -A very successful pilot project was established at Chungungo, Chile in 1987. Over a period of 5 years, 94 fog collectors were constructed atop 2,600 ft. El Tofo Mountain, collecting up to 2,000 gallons daily (mean yield: 3 liters/ m2/day). The villagers call it "harvesting the clouds". Walter Canto, regional director of Chile's National Forest Corporation, said:
"We're not only giving Chungongo all the water it needs, but we have enough water to start forests around the area that within 5 or 6 years will be totally self-sustaining." (Figure 49)Figure 49 ~ Fog Fences (El Tofu Mountain):( Photo source: www.fogquest.org )
The fog collectors on El Tofo have fallen into a sad state of disrepair. In 2002, only 9 collectors remained of the 94 that once shrouded the mountaintop. (Figure 50)Figure 50 ~ El Tofo Mountain (2002):
z100 -The success of the fog collectors at Chungongo actually contributed to the failure of the project. The new supply of water stimulated local development that tripled the population to 900 inhabitants while reducing the amount of water available to each family. It would have been a simple matter to increase the number of fog collectors, but a political decision was made to construct a pipeline (costing ~ US$1M) to bring water from Los Choros. Dr Schemenauer, who directed the original project, said that 400 collectors (many more than enough to meet the need) could be built on the mountain at a much lower cost than that of the pipeline. But the villagers were not significantly involved in the original project, so they had little understanding of water economics and what was required to maintain the collectors over a period of years; they were taken for granted.
The International Development Research Center (IDRC) that sponsored the original project reported that local officials "regard water from fog as an unreliable, irregular, and insufficient source for providing drinking water for Chungongo".
z101 -Dr Schemenauer maintains that the original project was not designed to supply water to the community. It was intended to perfect the technology and use the water for a reforestation project on the mountain. The local community lobbied to divert water to the village instead, and it was done. The obvious lesson is that the local people must be involved and committed to long-term maintainance and development, adding more fog collectors if the need arises.
z102 -Another 21 sites (1,000 acres total) in Chile and on the Pacific coast of Latin America also have fog collectors that continue to provide water for agricultural and forestry projects. Some of the locations have become self-sufficient because the trees have become large enough to collect fog for themselves, just as the ecosystem did before settlers disrupted it. Precarious "lomas" fog- forest ecosystems survive on droplets of water collected by their leaves. Some such forests, surrounded by deserts, have been sustained by fog for millenia. Very little cutting is necessary to initiate gradual but complete destruction.
z103 -In the past few years, FogQuest has conducted several successful projects in Yemen, Guatemala (Lake Atitlan), and Haiti (Salignac Plateau). More are being planned in the Sultinate of Oman, Ethiopia, and Nepal. The Yemen project is in the mountains near Hajja, where there is virtually no rainfall in the winter months. There is, however, sufficient fog to justify the construction of large fog collectors. The best sites produce about 4.5 liters/m2/day. The yield at the best sites in Haiti is about 5.5 liters/m2day. In other words, each square meter of mesh produces about 165 liters/month. A large collector (50 m2) would produce about 175 liters daily, which is sufficient to supply the needs of nine people..
Fog collectors in the Sultanate of Oman have yielded as much as 70 liters/sq meter/day! A 48 m2 collector there yields over 3000 liters/day. Each village requires 30 to 80 collectors (cost: ~ US$400 each) to provide its needs.
The many forms of atmospheric dehumidifiers offer real hope for thirsty humanity. Countless lives can be saved and improved by this elegant technology. The quantity of water thus produced may even meet the needs of large-scale agriculture if used in a conservative manner, such as drip-feeding.
z104 - - - References ~
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(22) Lemonick, Michael: Science Digest (August 1984); "The Power Fence"
(23) San Francisco Chronicle, (16 September, 1986)
(24) FogQuest (www.fogquest.org), PO Box 151 / 1054 Center St, Thornhill, Ont L4J 8E5, Canada. Phone 416-225- 7794.
(25) Robert Schemenauer, Atmospheric Environment Service, Environment Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Downsview, Ontario, M3H 5T4 Canada. Tel: (416) 739-4606; Fax: (416) 739-4211; email: robert.schemenauer@ec.gc.ca; PO Box 81541 Toronto, Ontario Canada M2R 2X1.
(26) Prof. Pilar Cereceda ~ email: dcereced@puc.cl ; internet articles: http:/ /www.geocities.com/csierral/ contactos.htm ~
http://www.conicyt.cl/bases/fondecyt/ personas/5/2/5275.html ~ http:// www.idrc.ca/library/document/102386/ cereceda.html
(27) Furey, Sean G.: "Fogwater Harvesting for Community Water Supply"; 1998, Silsoe College/Cranfield Univ.
(28) Dew condenser patents: US # 6,490,879 (Water Generating Machine) ~ EP 1,142,835 ~ RU 215197 ~ RU 218481 ~ WO 02/086245
(29) Weather modification patents: USP # 3,608,810 (Methods of Treating Atmospheric Conditions) ~ USP # 3,613,992 ~ USP # 3,630,950 ~ USP # 3,659,785 ~ USP # 3,795,626 ~ USP # 3,802,971 ~ USP # 3,835,059 ~ USP # 3,915,379 ~ USP # 4,042,196 (Method for Triggering a Substantial Change in Earth Characteristics) ~ USP # 4,347,284 ~ USP # 4,412,654 ~ USP USP # 4,402,480 (Atmosphere Modification Satellite) ~ USP # 4,653,690 (Method of Producing Cumulus Clouds) ~ USP # 4,470,544 (Weather Modification Using Ships) ~ # 4,948,050 ~ # 5,357,865 ~ # 5,492,274 ~ # 5,762,198 ~ WO 97/ 38570A1 (Atmosphere Inversion Layer Destabilizer), &c...
- - - PATENTS for airwells
USP # 1,816,592 ~ Means to Recuperate the Atmospheric Moisture ~ Achille Knapen
USP # 2,138,689 ~ Method for Gaining Water out of the Atmosphere ~ Edmund Altenkirch
USP # 2,462,952 ~ Solar Activated Dehumidifier ~ Elmer Dunkak
USP # 2,761,292 ~ Device for Obtaining Fresh Drinkable Water ~ Henri Coanda
USP # 3,740,959 ~ Humidifier- Dehumidifier Device ~ Frank Foss
USP # 3,400,515 ~ Production of Water from the Atmosphere ~ Ernest Ackerman
USP # 3,889,532 ~ Fog Water Collector ~ Roland Pilie & Eugene Mack
USP # 4,146,372 ~ Process and System for Recovering Water from the Atmosphere ~ Wilhelm Groth & Peter Hussmann
USP # 4,185,969 ~ Process and Plant for Recovering Water from Moist Gas ~ Wolfgang Bulang
USP # 4,206,396 ~ Charged Aerosol Generator with Uni-Electrode Source ~ Alvin Marks
USP # 4,219,341 ~ Process and Plant for the Recovery of Water from Humid Air ~ Wilhelm Groth & Peter Hussmann
USP # 4,234,037 ~ Underground Heating and Cooling System ~ Walter Rogers & Preston Midgett
USP # 4,242,112 ~ Solar Powered Dehumidifier Apparatus ~ Robert Jebens
USP # 4,285,702 ~ Method and Apparatus for the Recovery of Water from Atmospheric Air ~ Helmut Michel & W. Bulang
USP # 4,304,577 ~ Water Producing Apparatus ~ Toshio Ito, et al.
USP # 4,315,599 ~ Apparatus and Method for Automatically Watering Vegetation ~ Robert Biancardi
USP # 4,342,569 ~ Method and Apparatus for Abstracting Water from Air ~ Peter Hussmann
USP # 4,345,917 ~ Method and Apparatus for Recovery of Water from the Atmosphere ~ Peter Hussmann
USP # 4,351,651 ~ Apparatus for Extracting Potable Water ~ Calice Courneya
USP # 4,374,655 ~ Humidity Controller ~ Philomena Grodzka, et al.
USP # 4,377,398 ~ Heat Energized Vapor Adsorbent Pump ~ Charles Bennett
USP # 4,433,552 ~ Apparatus and Method for Recovering Atmospheric Moisture ~ Raymond Smith
USP # 4,475,927 ~ Bipolar Fog Abatement System ~ Hendricus Loos
USP # 4,506,510 ~ Apparatus for Continuously Metering Vapors Contained in the Atmosphere ~ Michel Tircot
USP # 4,726,817 ~ Method and Device for Recovering... Water Present in the Atmosphere... ~ Rippert Roger
USP # 5,275,643 ~ Fog Water Collecting Device ~ Yoshio Usui
USP # 5,357,865 ~ Method of Cloud Seeding ~ Graeme Mather
USP # 5,626,290 ~ Rain Making System ~ Donald Kuntz
USP # 5,729,981 ~ Method and Apparatus for Extracting Water ~ Michael Braun, Wolfgang Marcus
USP # 5,846,296 ~ Method and Device for Recovering Water from a Humid Atmosphere ~ Per Krumsvik
USP # 6,490,879 ~ Water Generating Machine ~ Siegfried Baier & Douglas Lloyd
USP # 6,644,060 ~ Apparatus for Extracting Potable Water from the Environment Air ~ Amir Daga
USP # 4,459,177 ~ Ground Moisture Transfer System ~ Louis O'Hare
USP # 6,574,979 ~ Production of Potable Water... from Hot and Humid Air ~ Abdul-Rahman Faqih
USP # 6,869,464 ~ Atmospheric Water Absorption and Retrieval Device ~ John Klemic
USP Appln # 2002029580 ~ Apparatus and Method for... Production of Fresh Water from Hot Humid Air
USP Appln # 2003097763 ~ Combination Dehydrator and Condensed Water Dispenser
USP Appln # 2002011075 ~ Production of Potable Water... from Hot and Humid Air
USP Appln # 2003150483 ~ Apparatus and Method for Harvesting Atmospheric Moisture
USP Appln # 2004112055 ~ Atmospheric Vortex Engine ~ Louis Michaud
USP Appln # 2004000165 ~ Apparatus and Method for Harvesting Atmospheric Moisture ~ Michael Max
German Patent (DE) # 3,313,711 ~ Process and Apparatus for Obtaining Drinking Water ~ Rudolf Gesslauer
DE19,734,887 ~ Device for Obtaining Water from Air ~ Heinz- Dieter Buerger & Yourii Aristov ~ Equivalent: WO9907951
British Patent # 251,689 ~ Method of and Apparatus for Causing Precipitation of Atmospheric Moisture... ~ William Haight
GB319,778 ~ Improved Means for Collecting Moisture from the Atmosphere ~ Achille Knapen
GB2376401 Self-watering Plant Pot
European Patent (EP) # 1,142,835 ~ Portable, Potable Water Recovery and Dispensing Apparatus ~ Francis Forsberg
Russian Patent (RU) # 2,190,448 ~ Independent Complex for Separating Moisture from Air ~ O. A. Bernikov
RU2235454 ~ Method & Apparatus for Producing Acoustic Effect upon Atmospheric Formations ~ E. T. Protasevich & S.A. Ryzhkin
RU2185482 ~ Apparatus for Receiving Biologically Pure Fresh Water... out of Atmospheric Air
RU2182562 ~ Method of Producing Biologically Active Potable Water with Reduced Content of Deuterium...
RU2146744 ~ Method for Producing Water from Air
RU2132602 ~ Method for Accumulating Moisture in Full Fallows
Japan Patent # 2004316183 ~ Equipment & Method for Producing Fresh Water from Atmospheric Moisture ~ Aoki Kazuhiko, et al.
JP2004000887 ~ Seawater Desalting Method...
WO Patent # 2004029372 ~ Method & Apparatus for Collecting Atmospheric Moisture ~ Peter H. Boyle
WO03,104,571 ~ Device for Collecting Atmospheric Water ~ Jonathan Ritchey ~Equivalent: AU2003240324
WO9943997 ~ System for Producing Fresh Water from Atmospheric Air
WO02094725 ~ Method and Device for Recovery of Water from the Atmospheric Air
WO03078909 ~ Combination Dehydrator and Condensed Water Dispenser
French Patent (FR) # 2,813,087 ~ Unit Recovering Atmospheric Moisture from Vapor or Mist... ~ Jacques P. Beauzamy
Swiss Patent (CH) # 608,260 ~ Process for Obtaining Service Water or Drinking Water... ~ Gotthard Frick
- - - end-notes
-no end- updates of airwelsm.txt and 3-06dirz.txt are on flop 11-10 of set#8 + set#18 of 18 sets
-
- - - - airwl2pm.txt patents 46verses z1 to z46 for 4-06\wapic.txt
v5-13-06 verses z1 z2 z3 etc for dew5-06 study
z1 rexresearch.com Home Recovery of Atmospheric Humidity US & Foreign Patents [ See also: Intermittent Absorption Refrigerators ~ Air Wells, Dew Ponds & Fog Fences ~ Klaphake: Air Wells ] z1 US Patent # 1,816,592 Means to Recuperate the Atmospheric Moisture Achille Knapen http://l2.espacenet.com/ espacenet/ viewer?PN=US1816592&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ This invention relates to means for recuperating atmospheric moisture by condensing the gaseous mixture carried by warm air. Atmospheric air is caused to circulate in a closed structure the inner walls of which are covered with stones or other materials forming sharp edges and projections. Gaseous moisture and the water vapor contained in the air condenses on coming in contact with these sharp edges and deposits the water of condensation, which is collected in a tank at the base of the structure. z2 US Patent # 2,138,689 Method for Gaining Water out of the Atmosphere Edmund Altenkirch http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US2138689&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Water may be regained out of the atmosphere air by exposing hygroscopic substances to the atmosphere at night so that water is thereby absorbed, and subsequently subjecting the substance to the sun's rays during the daytime so that the absorbed water is evaporated into an air current which is cooled in order to liquify the water. z3 US Patent # 2,462,952 Solar Activated Dehumidifier Elmer Dunkak http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US2462952&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ This invention relates in general to the heat activation of moisture-absorbing material such as silica gel and its regeneration. z4 US Patent # 2,761,292 Device for Obtaining Fresh Drinkable Water Henri Coanda http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US2761292&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ The invention relates to a device for obtaining fresh drinking water, especially in places where the commodity is lacking, and this under very economical conditions by utilizing the available natural sources of energy such as wind. z5 US Patent # 3,740,959 Humidifier-Dehumidifier Device Frank Foss http://l2.espacenet.com/ espacenet/ viewer?PN=US3740959&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ A humidifier-dehumidifier device operates in combination with a water closet. The device includes a housing with a fanmounted therein. The fan blows air through water transfer means and cooling fins positioned within the housing. Control means alternatively energize the water transfer means to humidify the air, or the cooling fins to dehumidify the air. The water closet acts as a cycling water reservoir in the humidifying mode of operation and as a catch basin in the dehumidfying mode of operation. z6 US Patent # 3,400,515 Production of Water from the Atmosphere Ernest Ackerman http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US3400515&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstact ~ An apparatus for recovering potable water from the atmosphere is described. The apparatus is based on the principle that the air in a given environment will be saturated and produced water vapor provided the air space is minimized. The device permits exposing large surface areas of a hydrophilic material to the atmosphere to collect water and the enclosure of the hydrophilic material containing the collected water in a minumum air space to produce liquid water. z7 US Patent # 3,889,532 Fog Water Collector Roland Pilie & Eugene Mack http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US3889532&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Apparatus for collecting fog water consists of a slotted stainless steel rotatable tube. The tube is rotated and fog droplets are collected by impaction on the tube. Centrifugal force causes the water to flow outward toward the ends of the tube where it is collected in small vials. z8 US Patent # 4,146,372 Process and System for Recovering Water from the Atmosphere Wilhelm Groth / Peter Hussmann http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4146372&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Water is recovered from air by a process utilizing the differences in the day-time and night temperatures of such air. The process is especially useful in subtropical desert areas. It consists in alternately removing the moisture from the cool night air by adsorption on suitable adsorbing agents and especially on silica gel and by utilizing the hot day-time air and, if desired and available, the radiation energy of the sun for desorption of the water stored in the adsorbing agent and for condensing the desorbed water by means of the cold stored during the night. An especially suitable silica gel is used for adsorption of the water contained in the air. The energy required for operating the plant is produced by passing the recovered water through energy producing installations such as turbines before it is used as drinking water or for irrigation. The process is very economical and, in contrast to seawater desalination processes, does not require additional thermal energy. z9 US Patent # 4,185,969 Process and Plant for Recovering Water from Moist Gas Wolfgang Bulang http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4185969&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ A process and an apparatus for recovering water from moist gas, e.g., humid air, are disclosed. The apparatus comprises fans, solar energy collectors, moisture absorber beds, and heat-accumulators which are connected by conduit means in such a manner that in a first reaction stage, e.g., at night time, moist gas, e.g., humid air, is sucked into the apparatus, is divided into two partial flows, the first of which is passed through the absorber beds in parallel or in series, whereby water is absorbed in the absorber beds, and then discharged and the second of which is passed through the heat-accumulators in series and then discharged, and that in a second reaction stage, e.g., during the daytime, a flow of gas is, preferably repeatedly, circulated in series from the fan through the solar energy collectors and absorber beds which are connected in alternating sequence and then through the heat- accumulators in series and back to the fan, whereby water is re-desorbed from the absorber beds and condensed on the surfaces of the heat- accumulators. z10 US Patent # 4,206,396 Charged Aerosol Generator with Uni-Electrode Source Alvin Marks http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4206396&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ This invention relates to novel charged aerosol sources for diverse applications in Heat/Electric Power Generation, weather modification, airport fog clearance, dispersed chemical reactions, and other uses; and in particular, to a Wind/Electric Power Generator deriving electric power from wind power directly without moving mechanical parts through the medium of charged water droplets introduced into the airstream from a charging electrode, the charged droplets eventually discharging to ground, the electrical load being connected between the charging electrode and ground to complete the circuit... z11 US Patent # 4,219,341 Process and Plant for the Recovery of Water from Humid Air Wilhelm Groth / Peter Hussmann http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4219341&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Disclosed are a process and plant for the recovery of water from humid air, in which at night cool humid air is passed through an adsorbent medium layer which adsorbs water from the air and in which, by day, air heated by solar energy up to a temperature which is above the ambient temperature is passed first through this layer to absorb water from the layer and then is cooled down so that the water condenses. The daytime air, when entering the adsorbent layer, is heated by solar energy with a radiator which is preferably a black anodized aluminum web in which the adsorbent medium may be embedded and/or by the adsorbent medium layer which is colored black for better absorption of sun rays. By using reflectors, the solarization upon the adsorbent medium layer and/or the radiator may be intensified. z12 US Patent # 4,234,037 Underground Heating and Cooling System Walter Rogers & Preston Midgett http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4234037&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ The present invention relates to a heating and cooling system for structures such as residential dwellings. More particularly, the heating and cooling system includes one or more conduits disposed approximately six (6) feet underground and having opposite end extremities communicatively connected to the structure so as to define a closed air circulation system through the structure and one or more conduits. A fan assembly including appropriate controls is provided to induce and circulate air through the structure and through the one or more conduits such that a system of air may be continuously circulated from the structure through the underground disposed conduits and back through the structure. When the temperature of ambient air is significantly greater than or less than the temperature of the earth or ground around the conduits, a temperature gradient is established and the earth around and in the vicinity of the conduits becomes a medium of heat exchange relative to air passing through the one or more conduits. Thus, depending on the ambient air temperature, the system of the present invention will either heat or cool the structure. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided in association with the conduits a water trap that enables water and condensation to be removed from the system of circulating air. z13 US Patent # 4,242,112 Solar Powered Dehumidifier Apparatus Robert Jebens Equivalents: DE3003320, FR2458034, JP55162583, JP59025136B http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4242112&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ A thermally insulated light transmitting housing forms a chamber containing a desiccant and having a first gas port open to the ambient and a second gas port connected by a two way valve to a volume to be dried. Solar energy transmitted through the housing heats and dries the desiccant. The increased air pressure due to the heating of the volume to be dried causes the air from the volume to be expelled through the valve into the chamber. The desiccant is then cooled by shielding it from solar energy before the volume cools thereby increasing its moisture absorbing capacity. Then the volume is allowed to cool drawing dehumidified air through the desiccant and the valve into the volume to be dried. This cycle is then repeated. z14 US Patent # 4,285,702 Method and Apparatus for the Recovery of Water from Atmospheric Air Helmut Michel / W. Bulang http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ bnsviewer?CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD&PN=US4285702&ID=US+++4285702A1+I+ Abstract ~ A method of recovering water from atmospheric air wherein during an adsorption phase, cool, humid air is transported through a water-adsorbent material for adsorption of water vapor therefrom and wherein during a desorption phase warmer, drier air is transported through the adsorbent material for pickup of water from said adsorbent material, said desorption phase comprising the steps of generating a first air stream in a closed-loop path through a heater for heating the first air stream and thence to the adsorber material and back through heater, continuing step (a) for a predetermined time, generating a second air stream by divering a portion of the first air stream for circulation from the adsorber material through a condenser for yielding water therefrom by condensation, and joining the second air stream to the first air stream after passage of the second air stream through the condenser, whereby the second air stream may be heated by the heater and passed through the adsorbent material. z15 US Patent # 4,304,577 Water Producing Apparatus Toshio Ito, et al. http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4304577&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ A water producing apparatus is, as a principle, to produce liquid water from moisture in the air by adsorbing the moisture on an adsorbent and then desorbing water from the adsorbent by heating it and condensing steam into liquid water. The water producing apparatus comprises a recycling passage for recycling steam through an adsorbent column in the desorbing step, a heater for heating the steam in the recycling passage; and a condenser branched from the recycling passage. In the desorbing step, steam in the recycling passage is heated by the heater to heat the adsorbent and to desorb water from the adsorbent and excess of steam corresponding to the desorbed steam is passed from the recycling passage to the branched condenser and is condensed to obtain liquid water in high efficiency. z16 US Patent # 4,315,599 Apparatus and Method for Automatically Watering Vegetation Robert Biancardi http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ bnsviewer?CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD&PN=US4315599&ID=US+++4315599A1+I+ Abstract ~ A method and apparatus for automatically watering vegetation whereby the water requirement of vegetation is constantly monitored and selectively condensing water vapor out of the atmosphere onto cooled condensation member and collecting the condensed moisture for application onto soil containing vegetation. Various accessories are provided to automatically feed the vegetation and distribute water to the soil containing the vegetation. z17 US Patent # 4,342,569 Method and Apparatus for Abstracting Water from Air Peter Hussmann http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4342569&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Method and apparatus for abstracting water from air wherein in a first phase of a recurring cycle a stream of cool, moist air from the atmosphere first cools a first heat storage condenser (1) and then humidifies a hygroscopic medium (14); in a second phase a stream of warm air additionally heated by solar radiation expels moisture from the hygroscopic medium and carries the moisture into said first heat storage condenser (1) where it condenses, releasing condensation heat, and drains away; in a third phase another stream of cool, moist air from the atmosphere first cools a second heat storage condenser (2) and then rehumidifies the hygroscopic medium, and in a fourth phase another stream of warm air heated by solar energy again expels the moisture from the hygroscopic medium and carries the moisture to said second heat storage condenser where it condenses and drains away, and wherein the warm air streams of the second and fourth phases, are preheated using the heat of condensation picked up by the said second heat storage condenser (2) in the fourth phase and the heat of condensation picked up by said first heat storage condenser (1) in the second phase, respectively, before being additionally heated by solar radiation and being used to expel moisture from the hygroscopic medium. z18 US Patent # 4,345,917 Method and Apparatus for Recovery of Water from the Atmosphere Peter Hussmann http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4345917&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Water recovery apparatus having a main heat reservoir and an adsorbent material, the apparatus operable in an adsorbent phase of operation for adsorption of water from the atmosphere into the adsorbent material using relatively humid, cool air and operable in a desorption phase of operation for the desorption of water therefrom using relatively drier, warmer air, the apparatus comprising an auxiliary heat reservoir, means for connecting the auxiliary heat reservoir in a first air flow path downstream of the main heat reservoir at the end of a desorption phase of operation, whereby said auxiliary heat reservoir stores energy from the main heat reservoir, and means for connecting the auxiliary heat reservoir in a second air flow path upstream of the main heat reservoir during the next succeeding desorption phase of operation whereby the auxiliary heat reservoir transfers heat energy stored therein to the air passing therethrough for pre-heating the air prior to passage through the adsorbent material and main heat reservoir. z19 US Patent # 4,351,651 Apparatus for Extracting Potable Water Calice Courneya http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4351651&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Apparatus and method for extracting potable water are disclosed in preferred form as extracting drinking water from moisture-laden air at atmospheric temperature through the use of a heat exchanger at or near subsurface temperature which is in air communication with the atmosphere for allowing atmospheric moisture- laden air to enter, pass through, cool, arrive at its dew point, allow the moisture in the air to precipitate out, and allow the air to pass outward to the atmosphere again. Suitable apparatus may be provided to restrict air flow and allow sufficient residence time of the air in the heat exchanger to allow sufficient precipitation. Further, filtration may be provided on the air input and a means for creating a movement pressure, in the preferred form of a turbine, may be provided on the output. The water from the system of the present invention may then be collected and provided for human consumption in conventional manner. z20 US Patent # 4,374,655 Humidity Controller Philomena Grodzka, et al. http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4374655&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ A humidity controller (12) for an outdoor storage container (10) is installed with a clearance fit in an apertured portion of a vertical wall (11) of the container (10). The humidity controller (12) comprises a frame assembly (13) to which a bed of solid desiccant material (14) and a transparent cover (15) are secured. Solar energy incident upon the transparent cover (15) is transmitted into a passageway between the bed of desiccant material (14) and the transparent cover (15), thereby heating air in the passageway and also heating a surface of the bed of desiccant material (14) exposed to the air in the passageway. Moisture adsorbed on bed of desiccant material (14) is vaporized by the solar energy, thereby establishing a concentration gradient for moisture in the bed of desiccant material (14) such that moisture is drawn toward the passageway for vaporization. Lower and upper valves 25 and 26, respectively, provide a natural convection current whereby cooler ambient air is drawn into the passageway and the solar heated moisture-laden air in the passageway is passed to the environment outside the container (10). z21 US Patent # 4,377,398 Heat Energized Vapor Adsorbent Pump Charles Bennett http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4377398&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ A solid matrix of microporous adsorbent is utilized to provide a barrier between two bodies of a gaseous mixture of which at least one constituent is a sorbable vapor. Appropriate application of heat at the opposing interfaces of the adsorbent barrier produces a partial pressure differential across the barrier. The adsorbent material is energized from a convenient heat source; for example, solar energy. The vapor pump of the invention may be used for environmental refrigeration and may be of the open or closed type. Other uses for the vapor pump are for producing a supply of pure water from low vapor content air or for drying air by removing the vapor content. z22 US Patent # 4,433,552 Apparatus and Method for Recovering Atmospheric Moisture Raymond Smith http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4433552&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ An apparatus and method for recovering atmospheric moisture utilizing a wind driven electrical generator for powering a mechanical refrigeration system for condensing atmospheric moisture. A housing is provided forming an atmospheric duct with a turbine mounted therein and drivingly connected to the electrical generator. The refrigeration system includes an evaporator positioned in the atmospheric duct whereon water vapor is condensed. In the practice of the method for recovering atmospheric moisture, electrical current is generated from wind and powers the refrigeration system which includes the evaporator. Atmospheric moisture is condensed on the evaporator and collected. z23 US Patent # 4,475,927 Bipolar Fog Abatement System Hendricus Loos http://l2.espacenet.com/ espacenet/ bnsviewer?CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD&PN=US4475927&ID=US+++4475927A1+I+ Abstract ~ A method and system for the abatement of fog in a designated air space over an aircraft approach zone and runway, consisting of gapped air jets laden with electrically charged droplets of low mobility, a ground corona guard in the form of a shallow water- and-oil basin, and a charged-collector-drops emitting device on the ground, arranged in such a manner that the low- mobility charged droplets blown aloft by the air jets form a virtual electrode suspended at appropriate height above the ground, toward which the oppositely charged high-mobility collector drops move, thereby collecting the neutral fog drops in their paths. The perforation ratio of the gapped air jet array is chosen such that the wind flux which penetrates the jet array is substantially equal to the entrainment flux at the lee side of the jets, thereby providing for a virtual canopy over the spatial region in which the fog is to be abated. A corona guard prevents neutralization of the collective electric field set up by the charged droplets blown aloft by the air jets, and also prevents premature neutralization of these droplets. z24 US Patent # 4,506,510 Apparatus for Continuously Metering Vapors Contained in the Atmosphere Michel Tircot http:/ /l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4506510&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Apparatus for the continuous metering of the vapors contained in the atmosphere. It comprises a thermoelectric module subject to the Peltier effect, which is supplied with electric power and whose hot face is in contact with a heat-dissipating radiator and whose cold face is in contact with a thermally insulated condensation chamber in which circulates the atmosphere charged with the vapors to be condensed, said chamber having a conductive metal structure provided with perforated ribs, the flow of the atmosphere and the temperature being permanently controlled at values such that the condensed vapor remains in the liquid state, the liquid condensate obtained flowing by gravity into the lower part of the chamber which, for this purpose, has a liquid phase discharge port. z25 US Patent # 4,726,817 Method and Device for Recovering in Liquid Form the Water Present in the Atmosphere in Vapor Form Rippert Roger http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US4726817&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Ambient air (2) is canalized and cooled in a free space (4) delimited by a thermally insulated enclosure (1) and a radiating heat exchanger (3) of which the outer face (6) is heat-absorbing and the inner face (5) is heat- radiating. Air is then passed through a curtain of hygroscopic fibres (11) where water vapor condensates into liquid water which is evacuated through a conduit (14) and, once dried, air is heated by flowing at the inside (8) of a radiator (7) recovering thermal energy emitted by the face (5) of the heat exchanger (3) through a transparent thermally insulating volume (12). Dry air is then exhausted through a vent (9) to the atmosphere. Since air circulates naturally, it is possible to recover, autonomously and without any other energy supply, water contained in vapor form in the atmosphere of the implantation site. z26 US Patent # 5,275,643 Fog Water Collecting Device. Yoshio Usui http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US5275643&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ The present invention is a device that can obtain fresh water from fog. The fog water collecting device comprises a vertical shaft (11), windmill elements (13) for producing rotational force from wind, a cylindrical rotating structure (12) supported so as to rotate about the said vertical shaft, a water collecting vessel (15) secured at the bottom of this rotating structure, a plurality of flexible rods (14) one end of each is fixed at the upper portion of said rotating structure and the other end of each is directed toward said water collecting vessel and, a receiving conduit for obtaining water collected in the said water collecting vessel. When the said rotating structure turns from fog containing wind, water droplets sequentially adhere and accumulate on the said flexible rods, then collect in the said water collecting vessel, and are subsequently directed toward an external destination via the said conduit. z27 US Patent # 5,357,865 Method of Cloud Seeding Graeme Mather http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US5357865&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ A method of cloud seeding for precipitation enhancement comprises releasing hygroscopic seeding particles from a seeding flare 10. The particles are obtained by burning, in the flare, a pyrotechnic composition which includes, as an oxidizing agent, a compound selected from the group consisting in potassium chlorate and potassium perchlorate. The particles are allowed to enter a suitable cloud formation. The particles act as seeds or nuclei for precipitable water drop formation, thereby to enhance precipitation from the cloud formation. z28 US Patent # 5,626,290 Rain Making System Donald Kuntz http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US5626290&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ An embodiment of this invention comprises a plurality of mono-filaments as condensation collectors. Plurality of filaments are connected to hang vertically from this horizontal cord, cable, rope on either side. A network of any size can be built. On a clear night the dew condenses on the collectors and makes rain. The condensate collector only works when there are no clouds to obstruct the heat radiation of the earth into the outer space. z29 US Patent # 5,729,981 Method and Apparatus for Extracting Water Michael Braun, Wolfgang Marcus http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US5729981&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ The invention relates to a method of extracting water from the ambient air by condensation of air moisture, characterized in that a heat-insulating partition is cooled on one side and heated on the other side by external supply of energy, creating a natural convective air draft on the heated side of the partition, the convective air draft being channelled substantially like a chimney draft and used to recover part of the energy while water is extracted on the cooled side by condensation of air moisture. The invention further relates to an apparatus for carrying out said method. The object underlying the invention is to ensure an appropriate afflux of air and a high degree of efficiency by optimum exploitation of energy. z30 US Patent # 5,846,296 Method and Device for Recovering Water from a Humid Atmosphere Per Krumsvik http:// l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=US5846296&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ In a method for recovering and/or purifying water which is absorbed from a humid atmosphere, the moisture from the air is adsorbed on a suitable medium (3) in a defined space, whereupon by the application of heat the moisture is brought to a condenser (1) where it passes into a liquid state (10) and is collected in a suitable manner. In order to improve the efficiency of this method the defined, sealed space is opened for the adsorbing medium (3), for free access to air at night-time and is closed during the hot day-time period. Condensed water is passed out through a collecting funnel (2) and a channel (5) to a collection container (6). A device is also described in the form of a housing with walls (7) which can be opened and closed, in which there is located an adsorbing medium (3). In the upper part of the housing there is provided a condenser equipped with a drop collector (2) which is connected to an outlet pipe (5) to a collection container z31 US Patent # 6,490,879 Water Generating Machine Siegfried Baier & Douglas Lloyd http://l2.espacenet.com/ espacenet/ viewer?PN=US6490879&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ This invention is directed to a water generating apparatus for extracting water from ambient air. The apparatus provides a condensing surface which is maintained during the operation of the apparatus at a temperature which is below the dew point of the ambient air. The presence of contaminants within the extracted water are reduced by filtering the ambient air prior to its processing by the apparatus and subsequently filtering the condensate. The apparatus is constructed from components which produce minimal particulate matter. The use of such components minimizes the likelihood of those components contributing to the contamination of the water generated from the apparatus. Bacteriological contamination in the condensed water is reduced by constructing the apparatus from components that retard bacteria growth. Further diminution of bacterial growth is achieved by maintaining a continuous flow of water condensate through the apparatus. z32 US Patent # 6,644,060 Apparatus for Extracting Potable Water from the Environment Air Amir Dagan http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=WO0163059&CY=ep&LG=en Abstract ~ An apparatus for extracting potable water from the environment air comprises a moisture collecting system having dew-forming surfaces and disposed so that the air drawn into the apparatus passes therethrough and moisture from the air condenses in the dew- forming surfaces. The apparatus also comprises a water reservoir capable of receiving water collected as moisture in the moisture collecting system. The water reservoir has a bottom and a side surface constituting a surface of revolution around a longitudinal axis of the reservoir, the reservoir having an outlet port formed at the bottom thereof along the longitudinal axis, for the withdrawal of water from the reservoir, and a circulation inlet port formed in the side surface. The circulation inlet port is designed so as to enable the introduction of water into the reservoir tangentially to the surface. The apparatus further comprises a water circulation line extending from the outlet port to the circulation inlet port of the water reservoir through a water filtration and sterilization system to provide the circulation of water through the reservoir by means of a pumping device, and a water dispensing valve for the external dispensing of water from the circulation water line. z33 US Patent Application # 2004112055 Atmospheric Vortex Engine Louis Michaud http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ bnsviewer?CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD&PN=US2004112055&ID=US2004112055A1+I+ Abstract ~ The invention describes the Atmospheric Vortex Engine in which a tornado- like convective vortex is produced by admitting air tangentially in the base of a cylindrical wall. The vortex is started by heating the air within the circular wall with fuel.... The vortex process could also be used to produce precipitation... Process and Apparatus for Obtaining Drinking Water German z34 Patent # 3,313,711 Rudolf Gesslauer http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=DE3313711&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ The invention relates to a process and an apparatus for obtaining drinking water. The drinking water is obtained from air containing moisture by at least partially condensing the moisture by cooling the air to below its dew point, collecting the water thus obtained and treating it to provide water of drinking quality. The apparatus has a cooling element (3), which is kept at a temperature below the dew point of the surrounding area, and a collecting device (9) for the water condensing on the cooling element (3), the collecting device (9) being in connection with a treating unit (11), intended for treating the collected water to produce water of drinking quality. z35 British Patent # 251,689 Method of and Apparatus for Causing Precipitation of Atmospheric Moisture and for Kindred Purposes William Haight http://l2.espacenet.com/ espacenet/ viewer?PN=GB251689&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ An adjustable high-frequency transformer for use with apparatus for discharging high-frequency alternating currents into the atmosphere for the purpose of precipitating moisture, forming clouds or dispersing fogs, comprises a primary winding carried by a frame 15 adjustably mounted on an insulating post 17, and a secondary winding in two parts connected together in series. One part of the secondary winding is carried by a drum 19 fixed to the post 17, while the other post is mounted on a smaller drum 20 in an oil-filled casing 22, which is made of insulating-material and provided with downwardly directed flanges 24 to shed moisture. One end of the secondary winding is connected to one end of the primary winding, the other end of the secondary being connected to a conducting member K from which brush discharges of high-frequency alternating current pass to the atmosphere. z36 British Patent # 319,778 Improved Means for Collecting Moisture from the Atmosphere Achille Knapen http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=GB319778&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ Means for collecting atmospheric moisture comprises an outer envelope 1 within which is a mass 2 of circular or angular section and formed of material such as concrete, clay, earthenware, or masonry; a pipe 6 depends through the envelope 1 into a central opening 4 in the mass 2, from which opening passages 5 extend downwardly into the mass. The passages 5 may be formed by earthenware &c. pipes. The density of the outer portion of the mass is greater than that of the inner portion. The outer surface ot the mass is provided with projections 7 of stone, slate, glass, metal &c. In use., cool night air circulates in the direction shown by the arrows, cooling the mass and causing condensation of atmospheric moisture, which is led through a trough 8 to a reservoir. z37 European Patent # 1,142,835 Portable, Potable Water Recovery and Dispensing Apparatus Francis Forsberg http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/ viewer?PN=EP1142835&CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD Abstract ~ The invention relates to a potable water recovery and dispensing apparatus for producing high-purity liquid water by condensation of dew from ambient air. The apparatus employs an air filter (518) to remove and trap particulates of diameter larger than 1- 100 microns dispersed in ambient air. An enclosed cooling means includes dew-forming surfaces adapted to cool the ambient air to below its equilibrium dewpoint. The surfaces are formed and positioned for gravity flow of liquid water collected on the dew-forming surfaces into a combined condensate collection and storage vessel (522). Before being discharged by means of a discharge line (536) the liquid water is filtered through an activated-carbon porous VOC filter-absorber (532) and treated in a UV treatment zone (534) where it is continually exposed to radiation of sufficient energy and appropriate wavelength to kill adventitious bacteria and viruses. If there is insufficient liquid water in the combined condensate collection and storage vessel (522) then municipal water (564) can be introduced to an external appliance or dispenser through the temporarily deactivated pump (530), the activated-carbon porous VOC filter-absorber (532) and the UV treatment zone (534). A check valve (566) prevents the municipal water (564) from entering the condensate collection and storage vessel (522). z38 Russian Patent # 2,190,448 Independent Complex for Separating Moisture from Air O. A. Bernikov Abstract ~ Moisture separating equipment used in regions, where desert and saline lands adjoin sea. Complex has readily built hangar-type construction wherein heat and water sealed pebble beds are arranged at two levels, with pebble bed levels being separated with water-permeable floor. Wet air is pumped from surface through intake pipes, cavities in pebble beds by low pressure created in sun-heated suction pipes. Moisture saturated with water sucked from floor between said levels settles on "endless" surface of pebble beds. Because floor is constantly in wet state, it reduces temperature of lower (working) level to and below dew point, which results in intensive backflow of moisture into water collector. Depending on meteorological conditions, complex is capable of providing water supply for at least 1,000 men at daily water consumption of 1,000 liters z39 Japan Patent # 2004316183 Equipment & Method for Producing Fresh Water from Atmospheric Moisture Content Aoki Kazuhiko, et al. Abstract ~ To optimize a condensed material in a self- contained fresh water producing system which collects water by causing dew condensation of an atmospheric moisture content on a surface of the condensed material, without requiring an artificial energy source. This equipment, inside which a condenser is installed, comprises: a means for forcedly leading an atmospheric flow from a lower part; a duct for exerting a stack effect of the atmospheric flow on an upper part; a means for collecting water, dripped by the condenser, on a bottom part; a moisture content forced- cooling means which is inserted into the condenser; and a solar and/or wind energy generating means as a power means. The condenser is constituted as a one-tier or multitier structure in such a manner that many condensed material units, wherein a cage filled with the condensed material of a porous material is further reinforced by a frame body, are arranged, coupled, stacked and fixed at variable intervals so that the atmospheric flow can be sufficiently absorbed into the condensed material. z40 Russian Patent # 2,235,454 Method & Apparatus for Producing Acoustic Effect upon Atmospheric Formations E. T. Protasevich & S.A. Ryzhkin Abstract ~ Controlling of meteorological conditions, in particular, acoustic methods and equipment for acting upon heat clouds and other atmospheric formations. Method involves transporting several elongated explosive charges into upper part of cloud in case heat cloud water content exceeds 0.5 g/m3, sizes of substantial amount of moisture drops exceed 19 microns and in case of favorable meteorological conditions, each explosive charge being composed of several small concentrated charges; orienting elongated charges according to direction of spreading of cloud and positioning substantially in parallel with and at distance of several hundred meters from one another; providing end initiation for simultaneous explosion of all elongated explosive charges; providing explosion of concentrated explosive charges in elongated charge with short lagging of one explosion with respect to the other. Apparatus has elongated detonating explosive charge enclosed in flexible light-weight strong enclosure, initiating detonation device with remote or automatic control system, and air balloons for raising of charge systems into atmosphere. Elongated explosive charge is combination of small concentrated explosive charges separated from one another by air gaps or partitions made of coagulant reactant. Length of elongated charge is 100-200 m, total weight of explosive in charge is from 15-20 kg to 30-40 kg. Diameter of charge is 3-5 cm. Air balloons are filled with hydrogen. Usage of elongated explosive charges composed of concentrated charges, certain arrangement thereof in rain cloud and detonation method allows dimensions of acoustic field to be increased in direction of spreading of cloud, process for creating of turbulent flows in cloud air medium to be intensified and process duration to be increased. Method and apparatus may be used for creating of artificial rain, settling of pollution, including radiation pollution, and carrying out of scientific researches. z41 WO Patent # 2004029,372 Method & Apparatus for Collecting Atmospheric Moisture Peter H. Boyle Abstract ~ A number of apparatii for condensing water from the atmosphere are described, whereby atmospheric air is drawn through an enclosed space and moisture condenses on plates or similar contained within the enclosed space and subsequently collected. Most of the apparatii include means to increase the flow of air through the enclosed space to increase the efficiency of moisture collection. A typical apparatus includes a body (11) supporting condenser plates (15) of conical or frusto-conical configuration. Extractor fans, the operation of which are controlled by humidity sensing switches and temperature sensors, provide the increased flow. To promote condensation, typically, cooling ducts (49) are provided through which air- conditioned cool air is passed. USP Appln # 2004000165 Apparatus and Method for Harvesting Atmospheric Moisture Michael Max Abstract ~ An atmospheric water harvester extracts water from high relative humidity air. The temperature of the surface of a condensation member is lowered in the presence of moist air to promote condensation of water vapor on its surface, and the water so obtained by condensation is collected. The atmospheric water harvester includes a photovoltaic member that generates electricity to power the refrigeration of the condensation member. At least as much electrical power is produced as is used to condense the water vapor so that no additional sources of electrical power are required. Each atmospheric water harvester (or array of harvesters) is rapidly installed and then operated in an unattended state for considerable periods of time. Arrays of autonomous atmospheric water harvesters can be installed as free-standing units or as roofs on either new or existing buildings. z42 WO Patent # 03,104,571 Device for Collecting Atmospheric Water Jonathan Ritchey Equivalent: AU2003240324 Abstract ~ The present invention is directed at a water collection device which condenses water vapour in atmospheric air to water. The device comprises means for drawing the atmospheric air into the device; means for condensing the moisture vapour in the atmospheric air into water; and means for collecting the water. USP # 4,459,177 Ground Moisture Transfer System Louis O'Hare Abstract ~ A method and an apparatus is disclosed in which solar heated air is drawn down a hole in the earth by a draft from a solar heated convection column located above the surface of the earth, the hot air being initially drawn downwards to a depth at which damp, moist earth is encountered with the hot air thereby evaporating water from the damp earth and producing water vapor and increasing the moisture content of the heated air and as this damp air is subsequently drawn back to the surface by the draft from the same solar heated convection column, it is allowed to contact cooled plates near the surface, the water vapor thereby condensing on the plates from which it is collected for irrigation or other purposes. In various embodiments either vertical or horizontal porous tubes in the ground contact the moist earth to bring the moisture of the earth into contact with the heated air flowing through the tube. z43 German Patent # 19,734,887 Device for Obtaining Water from Air Heinz-Dieter Buerger & Yourii Aristov Equivalent: WO9907951 Abstract ~ The invention relates to a device for obtaining water from air by means of a hygroscopic absorption material which is intermittently charged with humid air or subjected to a heat source. The device comprises a tightly sealed container for the absorption material with at least one means for supplying humid air and removing water vapour to a condenser and with an opening for evacuating dry air. The invention is characterized in that a vacuum pump is connected to the container and that processor- controlled valves are provided for which allow for a two-phase operation. The first phase involves feeding humid air into the container and the second phase consists of regeneration of the absorption material and condensation of the water vapour. z44 French Patent # 2,813,087 Unit Recovering Atmospheric Moisture from Vapor or Mist... Jacques P. Beauzamy Abstract ~ Reversible absorption properties of compounds for liquid- or vapor phase water are exploited. Lithium bromide, lithium chloride, calcium bromide and calcium chloride are examples of suitable compounds absorbing water from the vapor or liquid state. A solar still releases the water absorbed. The solar still comprises an oven with a fabric band recirculating continuously or intermittently between its interior and the ambient air. The band is impregnated with an absorbent chemical composition, e.g. one listed above. Absorption is continuous, and takes place simultaneously with water production. Operation alternatively follows the diurnal cycle, with absorption at night and water production during the day. The unit is orientated to face the sun, following its relative motion by manual or automatic means. An equatorial mounting is used. Fabric advance is manually- or automatically controlled, as a function of the oven temperature. The solar still has a condenser cooled by ambient air. It is alternatively cooled by water, seawater, brackish water or polluted water. USP # 6,574,979 Production of Potable Water and Freshwater Needs for Human, Animal and Plants from Hot and Humid Air Abdul-Rahman Faqih Abstract ~ Systems and methods are disclosed for extracting freshwater from atmospheric humidity in extremely hot and humid climates and supplying freshwater to a small group of people, a building, a farm, or forestation area. The freshwater is treated to provide drinking water by disinfecting to eliminate microorganisms and filtration to remove suspended particulates from air, erosion or corrosion products, and disinfected waste. Compact units provide drinking water for individuals, passengers in cars, vans, trucks, or recreational boats, or crewmembers on a seagoing cargo ship whether from atmospheric humidity or from moisture- laden gases. Furthermore, systems are disclosed for the ample supply of freshwater with minimal treatment for small- to large-sized buildings in a manner that alleviates the heat load on buildings. Collection of freshwater from hot humid ambient air is also provided for other uses, such as irrigation and farm animal drinking. Various methods are used for condensation of water vapor suspended in the air as alternative to conventional refrigeration cycles using CFC refrigerants. Devices are disclosed using naturally occurring brackish cold water, circulation of cooling water cooled by thermoelectric cooling or thermoacoustic refrigeration as well as evaporative cooling and transpiration cooling. Water produced by the systems may flow under gravitational forces entirely or with the assistance of boosting pumps. z45 Swiss Patent (CH) # 608,260 Process for Obtaining Service Water or Drinking Water... Gotthard Frick Abstract ~ An apparatus for obtaining service water or drinking water from the air moisture in the vicinity of a body of water, in particular in the vicinity of the sea, has a U-shaped condenser which dips into the body of water during operation. Above the body of water, said condenser is provided with a supply line, having an inlet opening, and a discharge line having an outlet opening. In this arrangement, the outlet opening is situated at a higher level than the inlet opening and, between the condenser and the outlet opening, there is arranged a vertical discharge-line portion which is sheathed by a layer which absorbs solar radiation. During operation, the vertical discharge-line portion is heated up by solar radiation, with the result that a convection current is obtained and air, containing water vapour, from the surroundings is sucked through the condenser. The water vapour is then liquefied in the condenser and pumped upwards by means of a pump. USP # 6,869,464 Atmospheric Water Absorption and Retrieval Device John Klemic Abstract ~ A device for absorbing atmospheric moisture includes a support member with a net extending therefrom. The net includes a super absorbent polymer that has the property of being able to absorb a multiple of the polymer mass in atmospheric water and to thereafter release the water in response to an external stimulus. The device is in this way reusable. The device has particular application in the clearing of fog, manure odor clearance, and collection of potable water in remote locations. A process for extracting atmospheric moisture is also detailed that includes the step of extending a super absorbent polymer net into contact with an atmosphere. Thereafter, with that being in contact with the atmosphere for a sufficient amount of time moisture is absorbed from the atmosphere. The application of a stimulus to the super absorbent polymer containing atmospheric moisture causes the release of liquid water therefrom. The super absorbent polymer is then suitable for reuse to again absorb atmospheric water. Top ~ Home rexresearch.com .
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2 Last Updated: Saturday, February 18, 2006 Image "Through the Bagelhole" Air Wells & Dew Ponds rexresearch.com Home ~ Catalog ~ Links ~ Order Air Wells & Dew Ponds Robert A. Nelson 2000 [See also: Wolf Klaphake: "Practical Methods for Condnesation of Water from the Atmosphere"
z3 Humans need to drink at least two quarts of water daily to remain alive. If groundwater is not available, the atmosphere humidity can be condensed instead to provide our minimum requirements. In 1993, Reginald E. Newell (M.I.T.) found 10 huge "atmospheric rivers" (5 each in the northern and southern hemispheres) with typical flow rates of 165 million kilograms of water per second. These rivers of vapor are bands up to 480 miles wide and 4,800 miles long, about 1.9 miles above the earth. They are the main means of transporting water from the equator. It should be possible to draw water from these rivers. The problem of accessing that height is not insurmountable, especially if the construction is done atop mountains. (1) z4 The collection of atmospheric humidity is an ancient technology that has been largely ignored in modern times. The most impressive example of this science was discovered in 1900-03 during the excavation of Theodosia (a Byzantine city dating to about 500 BC). Archaeologists found numerous pipes, about 3 inches in diameter, leading to wells and fountains in the city. The pipes were traced to a nearby hill, and were found to originate from 13 piles of limestone, each about 40 feet tall and 100 feet square. This system of "air wells produced as much as 14,000 gallons of water daily! z5 Dew Ponds ~ Dew ponds have existed since prehistoric times, but today the technology is nearly forgotten. A few unfailing dew ponds can still be found on the highest ridges of England's bleak Sussex Downs and on the Marlborough and Wiltshire Hills. Though far from any marshes, springs or streams, they always contain some water that condenses from the air during the night. z6 Arthur J. Hubbard described a dew pond in his book Neolithic Dew-Ponds and Cattleways (1907): "There is [in England] at least one wandering gang of men... who will construct for the modern farmer a pond which, in any suitable situation in a sufficiently dry soil, will always contains water. The water is not derived from springs or rainfall, and is speedily lost if even the smallest rivulet is allowed to flow into the pond. z7 "The gang of dew-pond makers commence operations by hollowing out the earth for a space far in excess of the apparent requirements of the proposed pond. They then thickly cover the whole of the hollow with a coating of dry straw. The straw in turn is covered by a layer of well-chosen, finely puddled clay, and the upper surface of the clay is then closely strewn with stones. Care has to be taken that the margin of the straw is effectively protected by clay. The pond will eventually become filled with water, the more rapidly the larger it is, even though no rain may fall. z8 If such a structure is situated on the summit of a down, during the warmth of a summer day the earth will have stored a considerable amount of heat, while the pond, protected from this heat by the non- conductivity of the straw, is at the same time chilled by the process of evaporation from the puddled clay. z9 The consequence is that during the night the warm air is condensed on the surface of the cold clay. As the condensation during the night is in excess of the evaporation during the day, the pond becomes, night by night, gradually filled. z10 Theoretically, we may observe that during the day, the air being comparatively charged with moisture, evaporation is necessarily less than the precipitation during the night. In practice it is found that the pond will constantly yield a supply of the purest water. "The dew pond will cease to attract the dew if the layer of straw should get wet, as it then becomes of the same temperature as the surrounding earth, and ceases to be a non- conductor of heat. This practically always occurs if a spring is allowed to flow into the pond, or if the layer of clay (technically called the 'crust') is pierced." z11 Additional construction details were explained in Scientific American (May 1934): "An essential feature of the dew-pond is its impervious bottom, enabling it to retain all the water it gathers, except what is lost by evaporation, drunk by cattle, or withdrawn by man. The mode of construction varies in some details. The bottom commonly consists of a layer of puddled chalk or clay, over which is strewn a layer of rubble to prevent perforation by the hoofs of animals. A layer of straw is often added, above or below the chalk or clay. The ponds may measure from 30 to 70 feet across, and the depth does not exceed three or four feet." (2) (Figure 1) Figure 1: Dew Pond ~ Image Image Spiral Dew Pond (Oxteddle Bottom, Sussex, 1997) ( Photo by Chris Drury ) z12 Another form of dew pond was invented by S.B. Russell in the 1920s. It was described in Popular Science (September 1922): "A dew reservoir 30 feet square will collect 24,000 gallons of water in a year, or an average of 120 gallons daily during the hot summer months and 50 gallons daily for the remainder of the year... "The Russell reservoir consists of a concrete cistern about 5 feet deep, with sloping concrete roof, above which is a protective fence of corrugated iron which aids in collecting and condensing vapor on the roof and prevents evaporation by the wind. The floor of the cistern is flush with the ground, while sloping banks of earth around the sides lead up to the roof. "Moisture draining into the reservoir from the low side of the roof maintains the roof at a lower temperature than the atmosphere, thus assuring continuous condensation. "At one side of the reservoir is a concrete basin set in the ground. By means of a ball valve, this basin is automatically kept full of water drawn from the reservoir. (3) (Figure 2) Figure 2: Russell's Dew Pond ~ Image Air Wells ~ z13 In 1930, the Belgian inventor Achille Knapen built an "air well" atop a 600-foot high hill at Trans-en-Provence in France.Its construction took him 18 months to complete. The unique structure was described in Popular Mechanics Magazine, thus: "The tower... is about 45 feet tall. The walls are from 8 to 10 feet thick to prevent the heat radiation from the ground from influencing the inside temperature. It is estimated that the aerial well will yield 7,500 gallons of water per 900 square feet of condensation surface." (4) (Figure 3) Figure 3: Knapen's Air Well ~ Image Image [ Knapen Air Well Photo: International Organization For Dew Utilization ] z14 An article in Popular Science Magazine (March 1933) also featured Knapen's air well and included these details of its construction: "[The air well has] a mushroom-like inner core of concrete, pierced with numerous ducts for the circulation of air; and a central pipe with its upper opening above the top of the outer dome. "At night, cold air pours down the central pipe and circulates through the core... By morning the whole inner mass is so thoroughly chilled that it will maintain its reduced temperature for a good part of the day. The well is now ready to function. "Warm, moist outdoor air enters the central chamber, as the daytime temperature rises, through the upper ducts in the outer wall. It immediately strikes the chilled core, which is studded with rows of slates to increase the cooling surface. The air, chilled by the contact, gives up its moisture upon the slates. As it cools, it gets heavier and descends, finally leaving the chamber by way of the lower ducts. Meanwhile the moisture trickles from the slates and falls into a collecting basin at the bottom of the well." (5, 6) z15 Unfortunately, however, the structure did not perform as hoped; at best, it collected only about 5 gallons per night. Knapen was inspired by the work of bioclimatologist Leon Chaptal, who built a small air well near Montpellier in 1929. The pyramidal concrete structure was 3 meters square and 2.5 meter in height (10 x 10 x 8 ft), with rings of small vent holes at the top and bottom. Its 8 cubic meters of volume was filled with pieces of limestone (5-10 cm) that condensed the atmospheric vapor and collected it in a reservoir. The yield ranged from 1-2.5 liters/day from March to September; In 1930, the structure collected about 100 liters from April to September, but only half that much in 1931. The maximum yield was 5.5 lb/day. z16 Chaptal found that the condensing surface must be rough, and the surface tension sufficiently low that the condensed water can drip. The incoming air must be moist and damp. The low interior temperature is established by reradiation at night and by the lower temperature of the soil. Air flow was controlled by plugging or opening the vent holes as necessary. z17 Chaptal drew his inspiration from a surprisingly successful experiment by Friedrick Ziebold, who constructed an atmospheric condensor atop a hill at Feodosia (Theodosia), Crimea, modeled after the ancient air wells discovered there in 1900. Ziebold's condenser was a pile of sea pebbles(10-40 cm diam.), 20 meters in diameter and 1.15 meters high. The construction yielded up to 360 liters/ day until 1915, when it began to leak due to a crack in the wall. Image Friedrich Zibold's Atmospheric Condenser (Feodosia, Crimea, 1912) ( Photo: International Organization For Dew Utilization ) Calice Courneya patented an air well in 1982 (USP #4,351,651): "z18 A heat exchanger at or near subsurface temperature... is in air communication with the atmosphere for allowing atmospheric moisture-laden air to enter, pass through, cool, arrive at its dew point, allow the moisture to precipitate out, and allow the air to pass outward to the atmosphere again. Suitable apparatus may be provided to restrict air flow and allow sufficient residence time of the air in the heat exchanger to allow sufficient precipitation. z19 Furthermore, filtration may be provided on the air input, and a means for creating a [negative] movement pressure, in the preferred form of a turbine, may be provided on the output... "The air well is buried about 9 feet deep. The entrance pipe is 3-inch diameter PVC pipe (10 ft long), terminating just near the ground... This is an advantage because the greatest humidity in the atmosphere is near the surface." z20 (7, 8) (Figure 4) Figure 4: Courneya's Air Well ~ Image In a preferred embodiment, the intake is provided with a cyclone separator to precipitate dust before the air enters the pipe. In addition, a flow restrictor device can beinstalled before the exit port. Air flows through the pipes at 2,000 cubic feet per hour at 45oF with a 5 mph wind. This translates to about 48,000 ft3/ day (over 3,000 lb of air daily). Courneya's first air well used a turbine fan to pull air through the pipes. Later designs employed an electric fan for greater airflow. At 90oF and 80% Relative Humidity (RH), the air well yields about 60 lb water daily. At 20% RH, the yield is only about 3 lb/day. The yield is even lower at lower temperatures. z21 It is difficult to calculate the amount of water that can be collected. The yield depends on the amount of air and its relative and specific humidity, and the soil temperature, thermal conductivity, and moisture. Acoustic resonance within the pipes might enhance condensation. The more recent invention of acoustic refrigeration could be used to advantage, as well as the Hilsch-Ranque vortex tube. z22 The water collected by the Courneya air well is relatively pure, equivalent to single-distilled water. Analysis of water collected by an air well near a busy street found no sulfur or lead (measured in ppm). z23 In the 1950s, the French inventor Henri Coanda designed an elegant method to produce pure water from saline. He designed an enormous silo with reflective walls, which was mounted several inches over a tidal pool. The silo was angled so as to catch and multiply the sunlight, thus superheating the air in the chimney. The rising hot air drew in cold air from the bottom, and became super-saturated with moisture by the time it reached the top. Fans then pulled the air through a condenser from which pure water flowed. The residual brine also is of great value to chemical industry and in the construction of solar ponds. The French government forced Coanda to cease operations because his device threatened their monopoly on salt production. z24 Coanda described his "Apparatus for Purification of Undrinkable Water" as follows in the abstract of his USP # 2,803,591: "Apparatus for the purification of non-potable water comprising, in combination, an installation for heating a circulating mass of air, said installation comprising at least one tubular element through which said air circulates and at least one trough-like mirror of parabolic section having the focal axis thereof horizontally disposed, with said tubular element disposed along said focal axis of said mirror, said mirror with its associated tubular element being mounted in the plane of symmetry of said mirror, and also being mounted to rotate about a vertical axis..." (9, 10) z25 Coanda also received USP #2,761,292 for his "Device for Obtaining Drinkable Water". He offered the following explanation: "It is known that the air contains water and according to my invention the energy for precipitating this water can be taken from the air itself in motion. z26 It is known that for a given temperature a given volume of air may not contain more than a certain quantity of water vapor. When it contains this quantity it is said to have reached its saturation point. Moreover, this point varies with the temperature, and the cooler the air, the less water vapor it may contain for a given volume. "Consequently, when a relatively warm volume of moist air is cooled to a sufficiently low temperature, it yields the water it contained in excess over the quantity permitted by the saturation point at the temperature to which it has been cooled. " z27 In a continuous process of producing fresh water, it is necessary to absorb the heat derived from the warm moist air at a speed corresponding to the rate of cooling..." z28 Coanda recommended that the condenser be buried so the earth could absorb the heat: "For example, one cubic meter of air from a wind whose temperature is about 40oC can contain up to about 50 grams of water vapor; if the wind is forced to enter a certain space by passing along... a radiator in which a fluid circulates at the temperature existing 7 or 8 meters below the round level, that is of about 11oC, this wind will immediately precipitate on the radiator walls the portion of the water content which is in excess of that permitted by its saturation point at the cooler temperature, that is, about 40 grams per cubic meter of air, as the saturation point of air at 11oC is 10 grams per cubic meter. The heat given off, which must be carried away by the fluid in the radiator, represents approximately 32 calories for said one cubic meter of air... z29 It is advisable to pass the fluid through a second radiator of larger dimension disposed in the ground at a certain depth. "If the humidity of the warm air is definitely below 50 grams of water per cubic meter, that is, if the air is far from its saturation limit, and if the device for obtaining fresh water is disposed near the sea, it is possible to use [windmills] for spraying sea water into the warm air in fine droplets, thereby increasing the amount of water contained in the warm air through the partial evaporation of the sea water thereinto.."(Figures 5, 6) Figure 5: Water in Air ~ Image Figure 6: Coanda's Air Well ~ Image
- - - Others: z1 Other humidity condensers have been built in recent years. Soviet cosmonauts aboard space station Mir used a system that recovered water from the air. The Aqua-Cycle, invented by William Madison, was introduced in 1992. It resembles a drinking fountain and functions as such, but it is not connected to any plumbing. It contains a refridgerated dehumidifier and a triple-purification system (carbon, deionization, and UV light) that produces water as pure as triple-distilled. Under optimal operating conditions (80o/60% humidity) the unit can produce up to 5 gallons daily. z2 Fog Fences ~ In 1945, South Africa's chief meteorologist, Theodore Schumann, proposed the construction of a unique cloud-condenser on top of 3,000 ft. Table Mountain on the south side of Capetown. Schumann's design comprised two large parallel fences of wire netting, one insulated and one grounded, which would be charged with a potential difference of 50-100 KV. The wire screens were to be about 150-ft. high, 9,000 ft. long, and 1 foot apart. He estimated that the electrified fence would condense as much as 30,000,000 gallons daily from "The Cloth", a perpetual cloud that crowns the peak. The fence was never built. (Figure 7) Figure 7: Schumann's Fog Fence ~ Image z3 Alvin Marks invented the "Power Fence" to generate electricity from the wind by means of a charged aerosol which was dispersed from microscopic holes in the tubing of the fence. Marks calculated that if the wind averaged 25 mph, a mile of fence would generate about 40 megawatts. The towers would be 500 feet high, strung with a grid of steel bars in a rectangular array, subdivided into a lattice of 4- inch squares. The squares are divided by a mesh of perforated tubules through which the water flows. Marks' patent states that the system can be used to modify weather and to clear fog. (11, 12) z4 The EGD Fog Dispersal System invented by Meredith Gourdine has been used at Los Angeles and Ontario International Airports and by the Air Force since 1986. The system uses an electrically charged mist that is sprayed into the fog over runways, thus clearing them for landing: "[The system is comprised of] an array of charged submicron water droplet nozzles {and select] characteristics of a cloud of charged droplets... including a field strength... a charge concentration, a time constant, [etc.,] whereby clearing of the airborne particles occurs...by attachment of the emitted submicron droplets to the airborne particles to the ground." (13, 14) z5 A similar system was invented by Hendricus Loos (USP 4,475,927): "[The system consists of] gapped air jets laden with electrically charged droplets of low mobility, a ground corona guard in the form of a shallow water-and-oil basin, and a charged-collector-drops emitting device on the ground, arranged in such a manner that the low- mobility charged droplets blown aloft by the air jets form a virtual electrode suspended at an appropriate height above the ground, toward which the oppositely charged high-mobility collector drops move, thereby collecting the neutral fog drops in their paths." (15) z6 Chilean scientists have developed a revolutionary "fog trap" at Chungungo, Chile. A group of 50 fog- traps made of plastic mesh stand atop a 2,600 ft. mountain and collect up to 2,000 gallons daily. The villagers call it "harvesting the clouds". Walter Canto, regional director of Chile's national Forest Corporation, said: "We're not only giving Chungongo all the water it needs, but we have enough water to start forests around the area that within 5 or 6 years will be totally self- sustaining." Another 21 sites (1,000 acres total) on the Pacific coast of Latin America also have fog traps. Some of the locations have become self-sufficient because the trees have become large enough to collect fog for themselves, just as the ecosystem did before settlers disrupted it. z7 Fog-forest ecosystems survive precariously on droplets of water collected by their leaves. Some such forests, surrounded by deserts, have been sustained by fog for millenia. Very little cutting is necessary to initiate gradual but complete destruction. z8 The ideal location for fog traps are arid or semi-arid coastal regions with cold offshore currents and a mountain range within 15 miles of the coast, rising 1,500 to 3,000 feet above sea level. z9 Mesh occupying 70% of the space is most effective for trapping fog droplets. Two layers of mesh, erected so as to rub together, optimize the collection of water in PVC pipes attached to the bottom of the nets. Collection varies with the topography and the density of the fog. z10 The fog trap at Chungongo is 40 x 13 feet and produces 45 gallons/day. As the fog becomes denser and more frequent in the summertime, water production doubles. Air wells, dew ponds and fog fences offer real hope for thirsty humanity. The quantity of water thus produced is not likely to meet the needs of large- scale agriculture, yet countless lives can be saved by this simple, elegant technology.
- - - References ~ (1) Sayer, Kathy; Washington Post (25 January 1993) (2) Scientific American, p. 254-255 (May 1934); "Dew Ponds" (3) Popular Science, p. 5 (September 1922). (4) Popular Mechanics Magazine, p. 868 (December 1932). (5) Popular Science Magazine (March 1933). (6) Knapen, Achille: U.S. Patent 1,816,592 (1931); French Patent 333,093 French Patent 682,352. (7) Courneya, Calice: USP 4,351,651 (8) Lindsley, E.F.: Popular Science, p. 146-147 (January 1984) (9) Coanda, Henri: USP 2,761,292; ibid., USP 2,803,591; ibid., USP 3,284,318 (10) Sculin, George: True (December 1956) (11) Lemonick, Michael: Science Digest (August 1984); "The Power Fence" (12) Marks, Alvin: USP 4,206,396;ibid., USP 3,417,267 (13) San Francisco Chronicle, (16 September, 1986) (14) Gourdine, Meredith: USP 4,671,805 (15) Loos, Hendricus: USP 4,475,927 Top ~ Home ~ Catalog ~ Links ~ Order Permission granted by Robert Nelson www.rexresearch.com What do you think of this article? Rate It! We appreciate your feedback. ? 158 people have rated this article with the overall rating of: 9.5 Projects Bright Green Living Wiki Awards A winner of the Omplace Award The Stockholm Challenge 2002 Outreach Events and Newsletter Help spread the good word about the Bagelhole's collection of folklore, alternative energy methods, and low-tech sustainability articles. Tell your friends about the Bagelhole.org. Thank you! Bookmark Us! *Disclaimer: www.bagelhole.org does not guarantee the accuracy of ALL the information shared on this site. We do our best to provide alternative methods on low tech sustainability for individuals and communities. Home About Founder Contact Forums Volunteer Submit Article.
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dew5-06\1a12m.txt v5-13-06
z1 Image WHY MASONRY Facts Preventing Moisture Intrusion and Mold Growth What is mold? Mold is a general term used to describe fungal growth. (1) Mold spores System (bacteria) are present in Architectural outdoor and indoor environments. To grow, mold requires four conditions: oxygen, temperatures between 35o and 100o F, a food source and moisture. Mold will consume organic materials including wood, cellulose, gypsum wallboard, dust and some adhesives and textiles. z2 Inorganic materials such as Wall System concrete masonry units, brick, tile and other similar masonry products do not sustain mold Information growth and are not damaged by the presence of mold. Mold can produce highly allergic proteins, which can trigger allergic reactions. z3 Symptoms can include coughing, sneezing, sinusitis and Image watery, itchy eyes. Significant exposure to mold can lead to pneumonia and lung disease. (1) There are more than 60,000 mold- related lawsuits in the U.S. alone. Many schools and other buildings constructed with stud back-up had to be torn down and re-built or required extensive repairs because water infiltration led to mold. z4 Building owners have spent millions of dollars in remediation, repairs, rebuilding and legal costs. Some insurance companies are now excluding coverage for mold-related problems. Of all elements contributing to mold growth in buildings, only one n++ moisture -- can be controlled. z5 Moisture is the most important factor controlling indoor mold. (1) Mold will flourish with any form or source of moisture including liquid, vapor, condensation, and high humidity. MOISTURE IN MASONRY WALLS It is imperative that moisture penetration be minimized in all wall systems since moisture is the most important factor contributing to indoor mold. Moisture can enter masonry walls through cracks at the interface of mortar joints and masonry veneer units. Most of these hairline cracks are considered normal and are caused by shrinkage, expansion, deflection and differential movements. Moisture travels down the drainage cavity and exits via flashing and weeps at the base of the wall. Moisture can also enter through cracked veneer or defective units. Rarely will moisture directly penetrate a masonry veneer unit. z6 Moisture penetration will occur when a unit is highly absorptive and sufficient wind or pressure driven moisture is present. Of course moisture can enter any veneer at failed sealant joints, penetrations, and poor roofing installations. Moisture may travel across a drainage cavity via ties or mortar bridging. If the back-up is properly protected with a water-resistant or waterproof coating, moisture will travel down the wall and exit through the flashing and weeps. If the flashing, weeps or other moisture protection systems are improperly installed, moisture will then penetrate the wall system and reach the buildingn++s interior. Other workmanship issues and inadequate wall protection during construction can also lead to moisture penetration and mold-related problems. Moisture can also enter a building as a result of condensation caused by thermal bridging at stud walls. Air infiltration, air exfiltration, external air pressure, negative internal air pressure, and improperly designed vapor barriers can carry water vapor into interior surfaces, especially when stud wall systems are improperly designed. z7 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR MASONRY VENEERS AND CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT (CMU) BACK-UP CMU back-up walls have compatible relative stiffness with exterior masonry veneers, thereby reducing deflection and cracking in the veneer. n++Masonry and concrete walls can help stabilize interior temperatures for a longer time during heating and cooling system shutdowns because of their capacity (ability to store heat).n++ (2) This reduces potential moisture and condensation and provides superior thermal performance of the wall. z8 Concrete masonry units do not sustain mold growth and are not damaged by the presence of mold. Implementation of new design requirements is not necessary when employing masonry veneers (such as brick, CMU and stone) with CMU back-up. Existing guidelines for these drainage walls include a spray applied dampproofing on the CMU for most climates. Spray applied air and moisture barriers may be used in lieu of dampproofing for superior moisture protection or if required by code. These wall components, as well as insulation, flashing, weep vents, mortar drainage net, and a minimum 2n++ air space are illustrated in Figures 1 & 2 (page 9). z9 Venting the air space (top & bottom of walls) with weep vents, that prohibit direct rain water infiltration, further reduces the possibility of moisture migration into the building. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR MASONRY VENEERS AND STEEL STUD / SHEATHING BACK-UP Steel studs with gypsum wallboard or other sheathings have been used as masonry veneer back-up walls for about 20 years. z10 It has been know for some time that the relatively stiff masonry veneer will crack when used with a flexible stud backing system. The MSJC 2002 (3) states; The probability of cracking in the veneer is high even with deflection limits of l/600 to l/720. This is one way that moisture can enter the wall system. z11 Moisture can also enter a wall system via improperly installed flashing and moisture protection systems. Other workmanship issues and inadequate wall protection during construction can also lead to moisture penetration and mold-related problems. z12 Recent studies and reports have found more causes and sources of moisture in stud wall systems. The Canada Mortgage & Housing Corporation (CMHC) recently completed a ten- year study on a brick veneer / steel stud back- up (BV/SS) wall system on a building in Ottawa. (4) The wall consisted of a 4n++ brick veneer, 1n++ air space, building paper, gypsum sheathing, 6n++ steel studs, batt insulation in the stud space, polyethylene vapor barrier, and interior gypsum board. See Figure 3 on page 10. The report concludes: n++Thermal bridging at the studs and heat lost by air leakage compromised the thermal resistance of the assembly. Accumulations of moisture, mainly due to air leakage, were such that premature deterioration of the brick, ties, and sheathing, if not the framing, is likely. Moisture in the exterior sheathing reached levels that would cause it both to weaken in time and to support mold. These findings imply that improved design is required to ensure satisfactory, long-term performance of BV/SS wall systems, construction quality notwithstanding. z13 Even with better than average workmanship, the following design improvements, relative to the test wall assembly, are recommended:n++ 1. Provide insulation on the exterior, in the cavity, sufficient to keep the gypsum sheathing above the interior air dew point temperature (this will also reduce thermal bridging of framing). The best way to avoid condensation is to eliminate all insulation from the stud space and insulate only the cavity. 2. Better air tightness, to reduce latent heat loss and reduce condensation in brickwork 3. A larger minimum cavity depth, to promote drainage and drying 4. Better venting of cavity (arranged to exclude rain) The CMHC states: n++Performance, particularly in management of moisture, and subsequent durability, has not always been satisfactoryn++. Several other reports and studies (see references) have drawn similar conclusions and recommendations regarding BV/SS wall systems. z14 n++Insulated exterior walls (in the stud space) created a whole new set of problems n++ namely, the thermal gradient created by the insulation across the wall made part of the wall colder than the dew point of the interior air in the winter.n++ (2) Air barriers, vapor retarders, air flow, air exfiltration and air infiltration and insulation strategies must all be considered to prevent condensation. z15 Solutions vary in cold and hot climates. Steel studs are conductors of heat and cold, and eventually n++this increases the condensation potential due to diffusion and air leakage, which may cause corrosion and premature failure of the stud system. Consider a strategy whereby all the insulation is outboard of the sheathing.n++ (2) A very detailed report is provided in the CSI Construction Specifyer, August, 2002 article, n++Insulation Strategies for Exterior Wallsn++, by Wagdy Anis, AIA from Sheply Bulfinch Richardson and Abbott Architects in Boston, MA. z16 Other studies and reports have shown that vapor diffusion during the cooling season has led to moisture condensation on the interior vapor barrier with certain types of stud wall back- up systems. z17 (5) DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MASONRY VENEERS AND STEEL STUD / SHEATHING BACK-UP The following design recommendations should be implemented (See Figure 4 on page 10) to provide the maximum protection from moisture penetration and mold- related problems with steel stud back-up walls: Apply a water-proof, air and moisture (vapor) barrier membrane to the exterior sheathing in lieu of 30 lb felt paper or other vapor retarding building wrap. See reference 6, building codes and other information for definitions of air and vapor barriers and retarders. Install rigid insulation over the exterior membrane in the cavity in lieu of the batt insulation in the stud space to avoid condensation problems. Rigid cavity insulation provides superior energy ratings by reducing transmission through studs. z18 To avoid condensation, it is best to eliminate all insulation from the stud space and insulate only the cavity. Calculate the dew point location to avoid condensation problems, especially if rigid cavity insulation will be used in combination with batt insulation. If an air and moisture barrier is used, it may not be necessary to provide a vapor barrier at the interior gypsum board. This will assist in preventing moisture condensation on the interior wall. z19 Perform a condensation analysis. A 2n++ minimum air space should be maintained as recommended by industry standards. Careful consideration and evaluations are required if the air space is reduced and full-height cavity drainage mats or drainage insulation boards are used. z20 Every product is different, and each requires careful study. The air space should not be reduced to less then 1n++, even with these cavity drainage materials. Provide weep vents (16n++ o/c) at the base of the wall that are designed to prevent direct rain water from entering. Avoid using tubes or tubes with rope or other devices that may clog with mortar and do not permit air into the cavity. z21 Provide weep vents at the tops of walls to provide air-flow within the cavity. Provide a high-grade exterior sheathing that is water- resistant and durable. Consider using sheathings (exterior and interior) that are glass fiber and do not contain organic materials. z22 Provide anchors that are made specifically for installation with exterior cavity insulation. Provide a self sealing membrane strip behind the anchor. Consider stainless steel anchors for superior protection. Image z23 Use high quality, long life-span flashings. Tuck flashing under wall membrane. Use termination bars if spray membranes are used. Provide a metal drip edge at all flashing locations. Consider using stainless steel flashing throughout the project. Provide flashing inspections at the job site. Mandate that only highly trained and skilled craftworkers and contractors with experience in masonry veneers and stud wall back-ups be used for the project. Specify all flashing, wall membrane, sealants and all other moisture control installations in Division 4 - Masonry to provide consistency and control of the wall assembly. z24 Follow all guidelines for masonry veneer and steel stud back-up walls: *Design for a maximum deflection of L/600 to L/ 720. *Even at L/720, veneer cracking will occur, increasing moisture in the cavity. *Stud depth should be 6n++ to 8n++ to allow for penetrations and electrical & plumbing. *Studs should be 18-gage minimum,16-gage to 14-gage preferred. *Studs should have a G90 coating. *Provide additional studs at corners (15n++- 25n++) to allow for greater wind loads. *Provide additional studs at the perimeter of all openings (doors, windows, etc.). *Provide additional studs or support at all sills, especially when supporting heavy sills. *Provide support or additional studs at all vulnerable stress points. *Provide a stud within 8n++ of EJn++s and CJn++s - coordinate with masonry layout.z25 *Provide cross bracing or horizontal bracing at story heights >14n++ to minimize deflection. *Properly terminate membranes at the top and bottom of walls, jambs, and openings. *Lap membranes or felt paper 4n++ to 6n++ and seal all horizontal laps with mastic. *Install membrane over all vertical laps. *Do not rely on gypsum board or sheathing systems with only taped joints. z26 Membranes allow for a higher degree of moisture protection and for greater variations in construction tolerances. Membranes provide continuity for the water- resistant back- up system by allowing flashing to be installed under the membrane. *Decrease distance between movement joints (expansion joints, control joints & others). *Add additional movement joints to accommodate differential movements. *Use relieving angles and soft joints at all floor levels in lieu of multi-story veneers. z27 *Do not use corrugated wall ties. *Consider using stainless steel ties and screws, or provide screws with polymer coatings. Hot-dipped galvanized ties may not be durable enough for stud back-up systems. *Use washers and other separators to avoid contact between dissimilar materials. z28 *Provide and install flashing, drainage materials, and weeps. *Provide drainage net material at all flashings. *Select high quality, low absorption veneer materials. *Engineer to check loads on studs when using stone panels. *Horizontal joint reinforcing is recommended in CMU veneers. Follow CMU veneer guidelines. *Horizontal joint reinforcing is not required in brick veneers unless code-mandated in high-risk seismic areas *Perform a final cost study. CMU back-up may be less expensive than a properly designed stud wall system. z29 COST COMPARISON MASONRY VENEER AND EXTERIOR BACK-UP WALLS CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS STEEL STUD / GYPSUM WALLBOARD Cost data from contractors indicates that the average price, in Connecticut, for a typical 8n++ CMU reinforced exterior back-up wall (12n++ to 15n++ high), is between $12.00 and $14.00 per square foot. This wall includes 8n++ reinforced CMU, dampproofing and 2n++ rigid insulation. A comparable stud back-up wall with gypsum wallboard costs between $10.00 and $11.00 per square foot. This wall would include 5/ 8n++exterior grade gypsum wallboard with 30lb felt paper, 6n++ n++ 16n++ gage studs, batt insulation, and 5/ 8n++ abuse resistant interior wallboard. In order to make the stud / wallboard system sufficiently moisture resistant to assist in preventing mold and rust, a water-proof membrane should be applied to the exterior wallboard in lieu of 30 lb felt paper. Provide 2n++ rigid insulation over the exterior membrane in the cavity in lieu of the batt insulation in the stud space to avoid condensation problems and for improved energy conservation. z30 For additional moisture-resistance, the design should include upgraded flashing, weeps vents at 16n++ o/c, and anchors compatible with cavity insulation. These additional requirements would add $3.00 to $4.00 per square foot to the stud / wallboard cost. Final average cost of CMU back- up wall = $14.00 SF Final average cost of Stud back- up wall = $14.00 SF ($10.50 + $3.50) Additional costs for repairs, maintenance, insurance, and other life-cycle concerns must also be considered when using gypsum wallboard systems. When CMU is used as a back-up and designed as a load-bearing or shear wall, additional savings are realized as the cost of the structural steel framing is reduced. z31 OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Owners and designers should consider using tile and terrazzo floors to further prevent mold- related problems. These surfaces are mold-resistant and are easily cleaned and maintained. Tile and terrazzo floors and walls should be used in all high-moisture environments such as bathrooms, pools and kitchens. REFERENCES 1. Michigan Constructor, Summer 2002: Mold Alert by Robert C. Rabeler, PE and James M. Less, CIH. 2. CSI Construction Specifyer, August 2002 article, n++Insulation Strategies for Exterior Wallsn++, by Wagdy Anis, AIA from Sheply Bulfinch Richardson and Abbott Architects in Boston, MA. 3. Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ACI 530-02/ASCE 5- 02/TMS 402-02), Specifications for Masonry Structures (ACI 530.1-02/ASCE 6-02/TMS 602-02 and Commentaries. 4. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Technical Series 00-138: Performance of Brick Veneer/Steel Stud Wall System (www.cmha.ca/publications/en/ rh-pr/ tech/00-138-e.html) 5. Building Science Corporation: Solar Driven Moisture in Brick Veneer (www.buildingscience.com) 6. Building Science Corporation: Building Science Glossary (www.buildingscience.com/ resources/ glossary.htm) 7. Other references National Concrete Masonry Association (NCMA) Engineering and Research Brick Industries Association (BIA) Engineering and Research / Technical Notes BOCA: The Code Official Magazine May/June, 2002: The Growing Problem of Mold Construction Specification Institute (CSI) Specifier Jun. 2002: The Risks of Unwanted Exposure - Protect Buildings from moldn++ Jul. 2002: Significant Building Materials of the 20th Century Aug. 2002: Specifying for Improved Indoor Air Quality Dec. 2002: Vapor Retarders in Warm Climates www.csinet.org (Select Construction Specifier) Masonry Construction Magazine - January 2003: Metal Stud Back- ups, by Michael Gurevich, structural engineer / design consultant (www.worldofmasonry.com) AUTHOR- RICHARD FILLORAMO Richard Filloramo is Area Director of Market Development and Technical Services for the International Masonry Institute New England Region - Connecticut Office. He holds a Bachelor of Science Degree in Architecture from Ohio State University and an Associates Degree in Construction Technology from Wentworth Institute of Technology. He has more than 28 years of experience in the masonry industry. He was also the national IMI liaison for building codes and standards. Mr. Filloramo is a member of the Masonry Standards Joint Committee, the code writing body responsible for the Masonry 530 Code. He has served on numerous committees and has been a member of The Masonry Society, American Institute of Architects, National Concrete Masonry Association, Brick Institute of America, Construction Specification Institute, Building Safety Seismic Committee of NEHRP, American Society of Civil Engineers, American Concrete Institute, ASTM, BOCA and several other national and regional organizations. He has written many technical papers and has spearheaded efforts to educate the industry on new codes and design requirements for masonry construction and has lectured across the country. Mr. Filloramo has been involved with the design, construction and inspection of more than 5,000 building projects. He has created and presented numerous seminars on masonry construction and specializes in project management, technical issues, detailing, and building inspections. z32 BRIEF INFORMATION ON IMI The International Masonry Institute is a labor/management cooperative of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers and contractors who employ their members. The IMI Market Development and Technical Division provides technical, design and construction information for all trowel trade crafts and materials including brick, concrete, concrete masonry, stone, tile, terrazzo, waterproofing, restoration, caulking, pointing, cleaning, cement finishing, plastering, and all other related masonry crafts. The IMI TEAM staff includes architects, engineers, contractors, craftworkers and other industry experts to assist in masonry construction. z33 The IMI has a vast library of technical and building code publications and conducts hundreds of programs dedicated to the promotion of masonry construction, the union mason contractor and the BAC union members. The International Masonry Institute services the building industry throughout the United States and Canada through itsn++ National office in Annapolis, MD and National Training Center at Fort Ritchie. There are numerous marketing and training centers throughout the nation. The IMI also engages in Research and Development and Labor / Management Relations on local and national levels. The International Masonry Institute - New England Region, services the building industry throughout New England maintaining offices in Boston, MA and Glastonbury, CT, and training centers in West Springfield, MA, Boston, MA, Wallingford, CT, and Cranston, RI. Used with permission from the National Concrete Masonry Association. .
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